Bhakti movement
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The Bhakti movement was a significant religious movement in medieval Hinduism[1] that sought to bring religious reforms to all strata of society by adopting the method of devotion to achieve salvation.[2] Originating in Tamilakam during 6th century CE,[3][4][5][6] it gained prominence through the poems and teachings of the Vaishnava Alvars and Shaiva Nayanars before spreading northwards.[1] It swept over east and north India from the 15th century onwards, reaching its zenith between the 15th and 17th century CE.[7]
The Bhakti movement regionally developed around different gods and goddesses, and some sub-sects were
The movement has traditionally been considered an influential social reformation in Hinduism in that it provided an individual-focused alternative path to spirituality regardless of one's birth or gender.[7] Contemporary scholars question whether the Bhakti movement ever was a reform or rebellion of any kind.[13] They suggest the Bhakti movement was a revival, reworking, and recontextualization of ancient Vedic traditions.[14]
Terminology
The Sanskrit word bhakti is derived from the root bhaj, which means "divide, share, partake, participate, to belong to".[15][16] The word also means "attachment, devotion to, fondness for, homage, faith or love, worship, piety to something as a spiritual, religious principle or means of salvation".[17][18]
The meaning of the term Bhakti is analogous to but different from Kama. The Kama connotes emotional connection, sometimes with sensual devotion and erotic love. Bhakti, in contrast, is spiritual, a love and devotion to religious concepts or principles, that engages both emotion and intellection.[19] Karen Pechelis states that the word Bhakti should not be understood as uncritical emotion, but as committed engagement.[19] Bhakti movement in Hinduism refers to ideas and engagement that emerged in the medieval era on love and devotion to religious concepts built around one or more gods and goddesses. Bhakti movement preached against the caste system using the local languages so that the message reached the masses. One who practices bhakti is called a bhakta.[20]
Textual roots
Ancient Indian texts, dated to be from the 1st millennium BCE, such as the Śvetāśvatara Upaniṣad, the Kaṭha Upaniṣad, and the Bhagavad Gita mention Bhakti.[21]
Śvetāśvatara Upaniṣad
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The last of three epilogue verses of the
This verse is notable for the use of the word Bhakti, and has been widely cited as among the earliest mentions of "the love of God".
Grierson, as well as Carus, note that the first epilogue verse 6.21 is also notable for its use of the word Deva Prasada (देवप्रसाद, grace or gift of God), but add that Deva in the epilogue of the Śvetāśvatara Upaniṣad refers to "pantheistic Brahman" and the closing credit to sage Śvetāśvatara in verse 6.21 can mean "gift or grace of his Soul".[23]
Doris Srinivasan[30] states that the Upanishad is a treatise on theism, but it creatively embeds a variety of divine images, an inclusive language that allows "three Vedic definitions for a personal deity". The Upanishad includes verses wherein God can be identified with the Supreme (Brahman-Atman, Self, Soul) in Vedanta monistic theosophy, verses that support the dualistic view of Samkhya doctrines, as well as the synthetic novelty of triple Brahman where a triune exists as the divine soul (Isvara, theistic God), individual soul (self) and nature (Prakrti, matter).[30][31]
Tsuchida writes that the Upanishad syncretically combines monistic ideas of the Upanishads and the self-development ideas of Yoga with personification of the deity Rudra.[32] Hiriyanna interprets the text to be introducing "personal theism" in the form of Shiva Bhakti, with a shift to monotheism but in the henotheistic context where the individual is encouraged to discover his own definition and sense of God.[33]
Bhagavad Gita
The Bhagavad Gita, a post-Vedic scripture composed in 5th to 2nd century BCE,[34] introduces bhakti marga (the path of faith/devotion) as one of three ways to spiritual freedom and release, the other two being karma marga (the path of works) and jnana marga (the path of knowledge).[35][36]
In verses 6.31 through 6.47 of the Bhagavad Gita, Krishna (Incarnation of Vishnu), the source of everything, describes bhakti yoga and loving devotion, as one of the several paths to the highest spiritual attainments.[37][38]
History
Initial development in Tamil lands
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The Bhakti movement originated in Tamilakam during the seventh to eighth century CE, and remained influential in South India for some time. In the second millennium, a second wave of bhakti spread northwards through Karnataka (c. 12th century) and gained wide acceptance in fifteenth-century Assam,[39] Bengal and northern India.[1][40]
According to Brockington, the initial Tamil bhakti movement was characterized by "a personal relationship between the deity and the devotee", and "fervent emotional experience in response to divine grace".[40] The Bhakti movement in Tamil Nadu was composed of two main parallel groups: Shaivas (who also worshipped local deities like Murugan/Kartikeya) and Vaishnavas (who also worshipped local deities like Tirumāl). The Vaishnava Alvars and Shaiva Nayanars and, who lived between 5th and 9th century CE.[41] They promoted love of a personal God first and foremost which is also expressed by love of one's fellow human beings. They also wrote and sang hymns of praise to their God, and came from numerous social classes, even shudras.[42] These poet saints became the backbone of the Sri Vaishnava and Shaiva Siddhanta traditions.[43]
The Alvars, which literally means "those immersed in God", were Vaishnava poet-saints who sang praises of Vishnu as they traveled from one place to another.
Like the Alvars, the Shaiva Nayanars were bhakti poet saints. The Tirumurai, a compilation of hymns on Shiva by sixty-three Nayanar poet-saints, developed into an influential scripture in Shaivism. The poets' itinerant lifestyle helped create temple and pilgrimage sites and spread spiritual ideas built around Shiva.[44] Early Tamil-Shiva bhakti poets influenced Hindu texts that came to be revered all over India.[47]
Spread throughout India in the second millennium
The influence of the Tamil bhakti saints and those of later northern Bhakti leaders ultimately helped spread bhakti poetry and ideas throughout all the Indian subcontinent by the 18th century CE.[41][48] However, outside of the Tamil speaking regions, the bhakti movement arrived much later, mostly in the second millennium.
For example, in Kannada speaking regions (roughly modern Karnataka), the bhakti movement arrived in the 12th century, with the emergence of Basava and his Shaivite Lingayat movement, who were known for their total rejection of caste distinctions and the authority of the Vedas, their promotion of the religious equality of women, and their focus on worshipping a small lingam that they always carry around their necks (as opposed to images in temples run by elite priesthoods).[49] Another important Kannada figure in the bhakti movement was Madhvacharya (c. 12-13th centuries), a great and prolific scholar of Vedanta, who promoted the theology of dualism (Dvaita Vedanta).[50]
Similarly, the Bhakti movement in
The Bhakti movements also spread to the north later, particularly during the flowering of northern bhakti yoga of the 15th and 16th centuries. Perhaps the earliest of the northern bhakti figures was Nimbārkāchārya (c. 12th century), a brahmin from Andhra Pradesh who moved to Vrindavan. He defended a similar theology to Ramanuja, which he called Bhedābheda (difference and non-difference).[52] Other important northern bhaktas include Nāmdev (c. 1270-1350), Rāmānanda, and Eknath (c. 1533-99).[53]
Another important development was the rise of the Sant Mat movement, which drew from Islam, Nath tradition, and Vaishnavism, from arose which the famous 15th century saintKabir arose. Kabir is known for Hindi poetry, which expresses a rejection of external religion in favor of inner experience. After his death, his followers founded the Kabir panth.[54] A similar movement sharing the same Sant Mat bhakti background that drew on both Hinduism and Islam, was founded by the Guru Nānak (1469-1539), the first Guru of Sikhism.[55]
In
Some scholars state that the Bhakti movement's rapid spread in India in the 2nd millennium was in part a response to the arrival of Islam[58] and subsequent Islamic rule in India and Hindu-Muslim conflicts.[10][59][60] This view is contested by some scholars,[60] with Rekha Pande stating that singing ecstatic bhakti hymns in local language was a tradition in south India before Muhammad was born.[61] According to Pande, the psychological impact of Muslim conquest may have initially contributed to community-style bhakti by Hindus.[61] Yet other scholars state that Muslim invasions, their conquering of Hindu Bhakti temples in south India and seizure/melting of musical instruments such as cymbals from local people, was in part responsible for the later relocation or demise of singing Bhakti traditions in the 18th century.[62]
According to Wendy Doniger, the nature of Bhakti movement may have been affected by the "surrender to God" daily practices of Islam when it arrived in India.[10] In turn it influenced devotional practices in Islam such as Sufism,[63] and other religions in India from the 15th century onwards, such as Sikhism, Christianity,[64] and Jainism.[65]
Klaus Witz, in contrast, traces the history and nature of the Bhakti movement to the Upanishadic and the Vedanta foundations of Hinduism. He writes, that in virtually every Bhakti movement poet, "the Upanishadic teachings form an all-pervasive substratum, if not a basis. We have here a state of affairs that has no parallel in the West. Supreme Wisdom, which can be taken as basically non-theistic and as an independent wisdom tradition (not dependent on the Vedas), appears fused with the highest level of bhakti and with the highest level of God-realization."[66]
Key figures
The Bhakti movement witnessed a surge in Hindu literature in regional languages, particularly in the form of devotional poems and music.
The writings of
The earliest writers from the 7th to 10th century CE known to have influenced the poet-saints driven movements include,
The Bhakti movement also witnessed several works getting translated into various Indian languages. Saundarya Lahari, written in Sanskrit by Adi Shankara, was translated into Tamil in the 12th century by Virai Kaviraja Pandithar, who titled the book Abhirami Paadal.[91] Similarly, the first translation of the Ramayana into an Indo-Aryan language was by Madhava Kandali, who translated it into Assamese as the Saptakanda Ramayana.[92]
Shandilya and Narada are credited with two Bhakti texts, the Shandilya Bhakti Sutra and Narada Bhakti Sutra, though these have been dated to the 12th century by modern scholars.[93][94][95][96]
Theology
The Bhakti movement of Hinduism saw two ways of imaging the nature of the divine (Brahman) – Nirguna and Saguna.[97] Nirguna Brahman was the concept of the Ultimate Reality as formless, without attributes or quality.[98] Saguna Brahman, in contrast, was envisioned and developed as with form, attributes and quality.[98]
These two views had parallels in the ancient pantheistic formless and theistic traditions, respectively, and are traceable to a dialogue in the Bhagavad Gita.[97][99] These two may be considered to be the same Brahman, as viewed from two perspectives: a formless mode focused on wisdom (jñana) and a form mode, focused on love.[99] Nirguna bhakti poetry is more focused on jñana while Saguna bhakti poetr focuses on love (prema).[97] In Bhakti, the emphasis is reciprocal love and devotion, where the devotee loves God, and God loves the devotee.[99]
Jeaneane Fowler states that the concepts of Nirguna and Saguna Brahman, which is at the root of Bhakti theology, underwent more profound developments with the ideas of the Vedanta schools, particularly those of Adi Shankara's (8th century) Advaita Vedanta (absolute non-dualism / monism), Ramanuja's (12th century) Vishishtadvaita Vedanta (a qualified non-dualism which posits unity and diversity), and Madhvacharya's (c. 12th-13th century) Dvaita Vedanta (which posits a true dualism between God and the atman).[98]
According to David Lorenzen, the idea of bhakti for a Nirguna Brahman has been a baffling one to scholars, since it offers, "heart-felt devotion to a God without attributes, without even any definable personality".[100] Yet given the "mountains of Nirguni bhakti literature", bhakti for Nirguna Brahman has been a part of the reality of the Hindu tradition along with the bhakti for Saguna Brahman.[100] Thus, these were two alternate ways of imagining God even in the bhakti movement.[97]
The Nirguna and Saguna forms of bhakti may be found in two 12th-century treatises on bhakti: the Sandilya Bhakti Sutra, and Narada Bhakti Sutra. The Sandilya leans towards Nirguna-bhakti, while Narada leans towards Saguna-bhakti.[96]
Salvation
According to J. L. Brockington, in the fourteenth century the Sri Vaishnavas had split into two subsects:
the dispute was over the question of human effort versus divine grace in achieving salvation, a con troversy often and not unreasonably compared to the Arminian and Calvinist standpoints within Protestantism. The Northern school held that the worshipper had to make some effort to win the grace of the Lord and emphasised the performance of karma, a position commonly summed up as being ‘on the analogy of the monkey and its young’, for as the monkey carries her young which cling to her body so Visnu saves the worship per who himself makes an effort. The Southern school held that the Lord’s grace itself conferred salvation, a position ‘on the analogy of the cat and its kittens’, for just as the cat picks up her kittens in her mouth and carries them off willy-nilly, so Visnu saves whom he wills, without effort on their part.[101]
Social impact
The Bhakti movement led to devotional transformation of medieval Hindu society, wherein Vedic rituals or alternatively ascetic monk-like lifestyle for moksha gave way to individualistic loving relationship with a personally defined god.[7] Salvation which was previously considered attainable only by men of Brahmin, Kshatriya and Vaishya castes, became available to everyone.[7] Most scholars state that Bhakti movement provided women and members of the Shudra and untouchable communities an inclusive path to spiritual salvation.[102] Some scholars disagree that the Bhakti movement was premised on such social inequalities.[103][104]
Poet-saints grew in popularity, and literature on devotional songs in regional languages became profuse.
There's no creation or creator there,
no gross or fine, no wind or fire,
no sun, moon, earth, or water,
no radiant form, no time there,
no word, no flesh, no faith,
no cause and effect, nor any thought of the Veda,
no Hari or Brahma, no Shiva or Shakti,
no pilgrimage and no rituals,
no mother, father, or guru there...
The early 15th-century Bhakti poet-Sant Pipa stated,[106]
Within the body is the god, the temple,
within the body all the Jangamas[107]
within the body the incense, the lamps, and the food-offerings,
within the body the puja-leaves.
After searching so many lands,
I found the nine treasures within my body,
Now there will be no further going and coming,
I swear by Rama.
The Bhakti movement also led to the prominence of the concept of female devotion, of poet-saints such as
Clouds that spill lovely pearls
what message has the dark-hued lord of Venkatam sent through you? The fire of desire has invaded my body I suffer. I lie awake here in the thick of night,
a helpless target for the cool southern breeze.
— Andal, Nachiyar Tirumoli, Verse 8.2
The impact of the Bhakti movement in India was similar to that of the Protestant Reformation of Christianity in Europe.
Seva, dāna, and community kitchens
The Bhakti movement introduced new forms of voluntary social giving such as Seva (service, for example to a temple or guru school or community construction), dāna (charity), and community kitchens with free shared food.
In other Indian religions
Jainism
Bhakti has been a prevalent practice in various Jaina sects, wherein learned
Buddhism
Medieval-era bhakti traditions among non-theistic Indian traditions such as Buddhism and Jainism have been reported by scholars, wherein the devotion and prayer ceremonies were dedicated to an enlightened guru, primarily Buddha and Jina Mahavira respectively, as well as others.[117] Karel Werner notes that Bhatti (Bhakti in Pali) has been a significant practice in Theravada Buddhism, and states, "there can be no doubt that deep devotion or bhakti / Bhatti does exist in Buddhism and that it had its beginnings in the earliest days".[118]
Sikhism
Some scholars call
The
Most of the 5,894 hymns in the Sikh scripture came from the Sikh gurus, and rest from the Bhagats. The three highest contributions in the Sikh scripture of non-Sikh bhagats were from Bhagat Kabir (292 hymns), Bhagat Farid (134 hymns), and Bhagat Namdev (60 hymns).[128]
While Sikhism was influenced by Bhakti movement,[129][130][131] and incorporated hymns from the Bhakti poet-saints, it was not simply an extension of the Bhakti movement.[132] Sikhism, for instance, disagreed with some of the views of Bhakti saints Kabir and Ravidas.[note 1][132]
Guru Nanak, the first Sikh Guru and the founder of Sikhism, was a Bhakti saint.[133] He taught, states Jon Mayled, that the most important form of worship is Bhakti.[134] Nam-simran – the realisation of God – is an important Bhakti practice in Sikhism.[135][136][137] Guru Arjan, in his Sukhmani Sahib, recommended the true religion is one of loving devotion to God.[138][139] The Sikh scripture Guru Granth Sahib includes suggestions for a Sikh to perform constant Bhakti.[134][140][note 2] The Bhakti themes in Sikhism also incorporate Shakti (power) ideas.[142]
Some Sikh sects outside the Punjab-region of India, such as those found in
Debates in contemporary scholarship
Contemporary scholars question whether the 19th- and early 20th-century theories about the Bhakti movement in India, its origin, nature, and history are accurate. Pechilis in her book on Bhakti movement, for example, states:[147]
Scholars writing on bhakti in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries were agreed that bhakti in India was preeminently a monotheistic reform movement. For these scholars, the inextricable connection between monotheism and reform has both theological and social significance in terms of the development of Indian culture. The orientalist images of bhakti were formulated in a context of discovery: a time of organized cultural contact, in which many agencies, including administrative, scholarly, and missionary – sometimes embodied in a single person – sought knowledge of India. Through the Indo-European language connection, early orientalists believed that they were, in a sense, seeing their own ancestry in the antique texts and "antiquated" customs of Indian peoples. In this respect, certain scholars could identify with the monotheism of bhakti. Seen as a reform movement, bhakti presented a parallel to the orientalist agenda of intervention in the service of the empire.
— Karen Pechilis, The Embodiment of Bhakti[147]
Madeleine Biardeau states, as does Jeanine Miller, that Bhakti movement was neither reform nor a sudden innovation, but the continuation and expression of ideas to be found in Vedas, Bhakti Marga teachings of the Bhagavad Gita, the Katha Upanishad and the Shvetashvatara Upanishad.[21][148]
John Stratton Hawley describes recent scholarship which questions the old theory of Bhakti movement origin and "story of south-moves-north", then states that the movement had multiple origins, mentioning
Sheldon Pollock writes that the Bhakti movement was neither a rebellion against Brahmins and the upper castes nor a rebellion against the Sanskrit language, because many of the prominent thinkers and earliest champions of the Bhakti movement were Brahmins and from upper castes, and because much of the early and later Bhakti poetry and literature was in Sanskrit.[150] Further, states Pollock, evidence of Bhakti trends in ancient southeast Asian Hinduism in the 1st millennium CE, such as those in Cambodia and Indonesia where Vedic era is unknown, and where upper caste Tamil Hindu nobility and merchants introduced Bhakti ideas of Hinduism, suggest the roots and the nature of Bhakti movement be primarily spiritual and political quest instead of the rebellion of some form.[151][152]
John Guy states that the evidence of Hindu temples and Chinese inscriptions from the 8th century CE about Tamil merchants, presents Bhakti motifs in Chinese trading towns, particularly the Kaiyuan Temple (Quanzhou).[153] These show Saivite, Vaishnavite and Hindu Brahmin monasteries revered Bhakti themes in China.[153]
Scholars increasingly are dropping, states Karen Pechilis, the old premises and the language of "radical otherness, monotheism and reform of orthodoxy" for Bhakti movement. [14] Many scholars are now characterizing the emergence of Bhakti in medieval India as a revival, reworking, and recontextualization of the central themes of the Vedic traditions.[14]
See also
- Dasa Sahitya
- Ekasarana Dharma
- Puja (Hinduism)
- Shaiva Siddhanta
Notes
- Ahinsa, and the Sikhs afterlife aspect of merging with God rather than physical heaven.
- ^ The Sikh scripture includes many verses on devotional worship. For example,[141]
They remain in ecstasy forever, day and night; O servant Nanak, they sing the Glorious Praises of the Lord, night and day. One who calls himself a Sikh of the Guru, the True Guru, shall rise in the early morning hours and meditate on the Lord's Name. Upon arising early in the morning, he is to bathe, and cleanse himself in the pool of nectar. Following the Instructions of the Guru, he is to chant the Name of the Lord, Har, Har. All sins, misdeeds and negativity shall be erased. (...)
– Sri Guru Granth Sahib, 305(16)–306(2)[141]
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- ISBN 978-81-7824-130-2.
- ^ ISBN 978-0826499660, pages 113-115
- ^ a b c d Pechilis Prentiss (2014), p. 21.
- ^ a b c Fowler (2012), pp. xxvii–xxxiv.
- ^ a b c Fowler (2012), pp. 207–211.
- ^ ISBN 978-0791428054, page 2
- ^ Brockington, J. L. (1996). The Sacred Thread: Hinduism in Its Continuity and Diversity, p. 139. Edinburgh University Press.
- ^ Iwao (1988), pp. 184–185
- JSTOR 2803358.
- ^ a b Hawley (2015), pp. 338–339.
- ^ a b Schomer & McLeod (1987), pp. 154–155.
- ISBN 978-0791446836, pages 181-184
- ISBN 978-0700713318, page 292
- ISBN 978-0700713318, page 292
- ^ "Andal-Nacciyar Tirumoli – Poetry Makes Worlds". Retrieved 1 August 2022.
- ^ Hawley (2015), pages 1-4 and Introduction chapter.
- ISBN 978-1472511515, pages 22-23, 107-118
- ISBN 978-0415394284, pages 20-21
- ISBN 978-9004095540, page 12
- ^ Schomer & McLeod (1987), pp. 181–189, 300.
- ISBN 978-0387939940, page 1169
- ^ a b John Cort, Jains in the World: Religious Values and Ideology in India, Oxford University Press, ISBN, pages 64-68, 86-90, 100-112
- ISBN 978-1472511515, pages 109-112
- ISBN 978-0700702350, pages 45-46
- ISBN 978-0700710485, page 22
- ^ a b Lorenzen (1995), pp. 1–3.
- ISBN 978-0199699308, page 178
- ISBN 978-0415595971, page 188-190
- ISBN 978-8126909025, page 305
- ISBN 978-0199699308, pages 360-369
- JSTOR 3217680.
- ISBN 978-8170103011, page 8
- ISBN 978-0-19-513024-9.
- ISBN 978-1-4514-9963-6.
- ^ Lorenzen (1995), pp. 1–2 Quote: "Historically, Sikh religion derives from this nirguni current of bhakti religion"
- ISBN 978-0199699308, page 35, Quote: "Technically this would place the Sikh community's origins at a much further remove than 1469, perhaps to the dawning of the Sant movement, which possesses clear affinities to Guru Nanak's thought sometime in the tenth century. The predominant ideology of the Sant parampara in turn corresponds in many respects to the much wider devotional Bhakti tradition in northern India."
- ^ Sikhism, Encyclopædia Britannica (2014), Quote: "In its earliest stage Sikhism was clearly a movement within the Hindu tradition; Nanak has raised a Hindu and eventually, belonged to the Sant tradition of northern India,"
- ^ ISBN 9788171418794.
- ^ HL Richard (2007). "Religious Movements in Hindu Social Contexts: A Study of Paradigms for Contextual "Church" Development" (PDF). International Journal of Frontier Missiology. 24 (3): 144.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-435-33627-1.
- ^ Dalbir Singh Dhillon (1988). Sikhism, Origin and Development. Atlantic Publishers. p. 229.
- ISBN 978-9004221116.
- ISBN 978-81-250-2801-7.
- ISBN 81-7156-336-8.
- ISBN 978-81-7010-367-7.
- ISBN 978-1-4411-8140-4.
- ^ a b Sant Singh Khalsa (Translator) (2006). Sri Guru Granth Sahib. srigranth.org. pp. 305–306 (Ang).
{{cite book}}:|author=has generic name (help) - ^ "Sikh Cultural Center". The Sikh Review. 33 (373–384): 86. 1985.
- ISBN 978-1-136-16323-4.
- ISBN 978-90-04-24236-4.
- ISBN 978-1-317-40358-6.
- ISBN 978-0-7546-5202-1.
- ^ a b Pechilis Prentiss (2014), pp. 13–14.
- ISBN 978-0700702350, pages 5, 8-9, 11-32
- ^ Hawley (2015), p. 10.
- ISBN 978-0520260030, pages 423-431
- ISBN 978-0520260030, pages 529-534
- ISBN 978-1576077702, page 587
- ^ ISBN 978-9004117730, pages 283-299
Works cited
- Fowler, Jeaneane D. (2012). The Bhagavad Gita: A Text and Commentary for Students. Sussex Academic Press. ISBN 978-1-84519-346-1.
- Hawley, John (2015). A Storm of Songs: India and the Idea of the Bhakti Movement. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-18746-7.
- Iwao, Shima (June–September 1988). "The Vithoba Faith of Maharashtra: The Vithoba Temple of Pandharpur and Its Mythological Structure" (PDF). Japanese Journal of Religious Studies. 15 (2–3). Nanzan Institute for Religion and Culture: 183–197. ISSN 0304-1042. Archived from the original(PDF) on 26 March 2009.
- Lorenzen, David (1995). Bhakti Religion in North India: Community Identity and Political Action. State University of New York Press. ISBN 978-0-7914-2025-6.
- Pechilis Prentiss, Karen (2014). The Embodiment of Bhakti. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-535190-3.
- Schomer, Karine; McLeod, W. H., eds. (1987). The Sants: Studies in a Devotional Tradition of India. Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 9788120802773.
Further reading
- John Hawley (1984), "The Music in Faith and Morality", Journal of the American Academy of Religion, Vol. 52, No. 2, pages 243–262
- John Hawley (1988), "Author and Authority in the Bhakti Poetry of North India", The Journal of Asian Studies, Vol. 47, No. 2, pages 269–290
- S. M. Pandey (1965), "Mīrābāī and Her Contributions to the Bhakti Movement", History of Religions, Vol. 5, No. 1, pages 54–73
- Karen Pechilis (2015), "Female Gurus and Ascetics", in Brill's Encyclopedia of Hinduism. Edited by: Knut A. Jacobsen et al. (Requires subscription)
- Vijay Pinch (May 2003), "Bhakti and the British Empire", Past & Present, No. 179, pages 159–196
- George Spencer (1970), "The Sacred Geography of the Tamil Shaivite Hymns", Numen, Vol. 17, Fasc. 3, pages 232–244
- Glenn Yocum (1973), "Shrines, Shamanism, and Love Poetry: Elements in the Emergence of Popular Tamil Bhakti", Journal of the American Academy of Religion, Vol. 41, No. 1, pages 3–17
External links
- Bhakti bibliography Archived 4 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine, Harvard University Archive (2001)
- Definition of Bhakti, Swami Vivekananda, Wikisource