Biological pest control
Biological control or biocontrol is a method of
There are three basic strategies for biological control: classical (importation), where a natural enemy of a pest is introduced in the hope of achieving control; inductive (augmentation), in which a large population of natural enemies are administered for quick pest control; and inoculative (conservation), in which measures are taken to maintain natural enemies through regular reestablishment.[2]
Natural enemies of insects play an important part in limiting the densities of potential pests. Biological control agents such as these include predators, parasitoids, pathogens, and competitors. Biological control agents of plant diseases are most often referred to as antagonists. Biological control agents of weeds include seed predators, herbivores, and plant pathogens.
Biological control can have side-effects on biodiversity through attacks on non-target species by any of the above mechanisms, especially when a species is introduced without a thorough understanding of the possible consequences.
History
The term "biological control" was first used by
Biological control techniques as we know them today started to emerge in the 1870s. During this decade, in the US, the Missouri State Entomologist C. V. Riley and the Illinois State Entomologist W. LeBaron began within-state redistribution of parasitoids to control crop pests. The first international shipment of an insect as a biological control agent was made by Charles V. Riley in 1873, shipping to France the predatory mites Tyroglyphus phylloxera to help fight the grapevine phylloxera (Daktulosphaira vitifoliae) that was destroying grapevines in France. The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) initiated research in classical biological control following the establishment of the Division of Entomology in 1881, with C. V. Riley as Chief. The first importation of a parasitoidal wasp into the United States was that of the braconid Cotesia glomerata in 1883–1884, imported from Europe to control the invasive cabbage white butterfly, Pieris rapae. In 1888–1889 the vedalia beetle, Novius cardinalis, a lady beetle, was introduced from Australia to California to control the cottony cushion scale, Icerya purchasi. This had become a major problem for the newly developed citrus industry in California, but by the end of 1889, the cottony cushion scale population had already declined. This great success led to further introductions of beneficial insects into the US.[7][8]
In 1905 the USDA initiated its first large-scale biological control program, sending entomologists to Europe and Japan to look for natural enemies of the spongy moth,
Prickly pear cacti were introduced into Queensland, Australia as ornamental plants, starting in 1788. They quickly spread to cover over 25 million hectares of Australia by 1920, increasing by 1 million hectares per year. Digging, burning, and crushing all proved ineffective. Two control agents were introduced to help control the spread of the plant, the cactus moth Cactoblastis cactorum, and the scale insect Dactylopius. Between 1926 and 1931, tens of millions of cactus moth eggs were distributed around Queensland with great success, and by 1932, most areas of prickly pear had been destroyed.[10]
The first reported case of a classical biological control attempt in
Types of biological pest control
There are three basic biological pest control strategies: importation (classical biological control), augmentation and conservation.[12]
Importation
Importation or classical biological control involves the introduction of a pest's natural enemies to a new locale where they do not occur naturally. Early instances were often unofficial and not based on research, and some introduced species became serious pests themselves.[13]
To be most effective at controlling a pest, a biological control agent requires a colonizing ability which allows it to keep pace with changes to the habitat in space and time. Control is greatest if the agent has temporal persistence so that it can maintain its population even in the temporary absence of the target species, and if it is an opportunistic forager, enabling it to rapidly exploit a pest population.[14]
One of the earliest successes was in controlling
Damage from Hypera postica, the alfalfa weevil, a serious introduced pest of forage, was substantially reduced by the introduction of natural enemies. 20 years after their introduction the population of weevils in the alfalfa area treated for alfalfa weevil in the Northeastern United States remained 75 percent down.[17]
Small, commercially-reared parasitoidal wasps,[12] Trichogramma ostriniae, provide limited and erratic control of the European corn borer (Ostrinia nubilalis), a serious pest. Careful formulations of the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis are more effective. The O. nubilalis integrated control releasing Tricogramma brassicae (egg parasitoid) and later Bacillus thuringiensis subs. kurstaki (larvicide effect) reduce pest damages more than insecticide treatments [22]
The population of
Augmentation
Augmentation involves the supplemental release of natural enemies that occur in a particular area, boosting the naturally occurring populations there. In inoculative release, small numbers of the control agents are released at intervals to allow them to reproduce, in the hope of setting up longer-term control and thus keeping the pest down to a low level, constituting prevention rather than cure. In inundative release, in contrast, large numbers are released in the hope of rapidly reducing a damaging pest population, correcting a problem that has already arisen. Augmentation can be effective, but is not guaranteed to work, and depends on the precise details of the interactions between each pest and control agent.[24]
An example of inoculative release occurs in the horticultural production of several crops in
The egg parasite
Conservation
The conservation of existing natural enemies in an environment is the third method of biological pest control.[29] Natural enemies are already adapted to the habitat and to the target pest, and their conservation can be simple and cost-effective, as when nectar-producing crop plants are grown in the borders of rice fields. These provide nectar to support parasitoids and predators of planthopper pests and have been demonstrated to be so effective (reducing pest densities by 10- or even 100-fold) that farmers sprayed 70% less insecticides and enjoyed yields boosted by 5%.[30] Predators of aphids were similarly found to be present in tussock grasses by field boundary hedges in England, but they spread too slowly to reach the centers of fields. Control was improved by planting a meter-wide strip of tussock grasses in field centers, enabling aphid predators to overwinter there.[29]
Cropping systems can be modified to favor natural enemies, a practice sometimes referred to as habitat manipulation. Providing a suitable habitat, such as a
In cotton production, the replacement of broad-spectrum insecticides with selective control measures such as
Biological control agents
Predators
Predators are mainly free-living species that directly consume a large number of
The larvae of many hoverfly species principally feed upon aphids, one larva devouring up to 400 in its lifetime. Their effectiveness in commercial crops has not been studied.[35]
The running crab spider Philodromus cespitum also prey heavily on aphids, and act as a biological control agent in European fruit orchards.[36]
Several species of entomopathogenic nematode are important predators of insect and other invertebrate pests.[37][38] Entomopathogenic nematodes form a stress–resistant stage known as the infective juvenile. These spread in the soil and infect suitable insect hosts. Upon entering the insect they move to the hemolymph where they recover from their stagnated state of development and release their bacterial symbionts. The bacterial symbionts reproduce and release toxins, which then kill the host insect.[38][39] Phasmarhabditis hermaphrodita is a microscopic nematode that kills slugs. Its complex life cycle includes a free-living, infective stage in the soil where it becomes associated with a pathogenic bacteria such as Moraxella osloensis. The nematode enters the slug through the posterior mantle region, thereafter feeding and reproducing inside, but it is the bacteria that kill the slug. The nematode is available commercially in Europe and is applied by watering onto moist soil.[40] Entomopathogenic nematodes have a limited shelf life because of their limited resistance to high temperature and dry conditions.[39] The type of soil they are applied to may also limit their effectiveness.[38]
Species used to control spider mites include the predatory mites
Predators including Cactoblastis cactorum (mentioned above) can also be used to destroy invasive plant species. As another example, the poison hemlock moth (Agonopterix alstroemeriana) can be used to control poison hemlock (Conium maculatum). During its larval stage, the moth strictly consumes its host plant, poison hemlock, and can exist at hundreds of larvae per individual host plant, destroying large swathes of the hemlock.[44]
For
In Honduras, where the mosquito Aedes aegypti was transmitting dengue fever and other infectious diseases, biological control was attempted by a community action plan; copepods, baby turtles, and juvenile tilapia were added to the wells and tanks where the mosquito breeds and the mosquito larvae were eliminated.[55]
Even amongst arthropods usually thought of as obligate
Parasitoids
Parasitoids lay their eggs on or in the body of an insect host, which is then used as a food for developing larvae. The host is ultimately killed. Most insect parasitoids are wasps or flies, and many have a very narrow host range. The most important groups are the ichneumonid wasps, which mainly use caterpillars as hosts; braconid wasps, which attack caterpillars and a wide range of other insects including aphids; chalcidoid wasps, which parasitize eggs and larvae of many insect species; and tachinid flies, which parasitize a wide range of insects including caterpillars, beetle adults and larvae, and true bugs.[58] Parasitoids are most effective at reducing pest populations when their host organisms have limited refuges to hide from them.[59]
Parasitoids are among the most widely used biological control agents. Commercially, there are two types of rearing systems: short-term daily output with high production of parasitoids per day, and long-term, low daily output systems.[60] In most instances, production will need to be matched with the appropriate release dates when susceptible host species at a suitable phase of development will be available.[61] Larger production facilities produce on a yearlong basis, whereas some facilities produce only seasonally. Rearing facilities are usually a significant distance from where the agents are to be used in the field, and transporting the parasitoids from the point of production to the point of use can pose problems.[62] Shipping conditions can be too hot, and even vibrations from planes or trucks can adversely affect parasitoids.[60]
The eastern spruce budworm is an example of a destructive insect in fir and spruce forests. Birds are a natural form of biological control, but the Trichogramma minutum, a species of parasitic wasp, has been investigated as an alternative to more controversial chemical controls.[64]
There are a number of recent studies pursuing sustainable methods for controlling urban cockroaches using parasitic wasps.[65][66] Since most cockroaches remain in the sewer system and sheltered areas which are inaccessible to insecticides, employing active-hunter wasps is a strategy to try and reduce their populations.
Pathogens
Pathogenic micro-organisms include
The use of pathogens against
Bacteria
Bacteria used for biological control infect insects via their digestive tracts, so they offer only limited options for controlling insects with sucking mouth parts such as aphids and scale insects.
Colombia mosquito control
The largest-ever deployment of
Fungi
Pathogenic fungi may be controlled by other fungi, or bacteria or yeasts, such as:
The fungi Cordyceps and Metacordyceps are deployed against a wide spectrum of arthropods.[80] Entomophaga is effective against pests such as the green peach aphid.[81]
Several members of Chytridiomycota and Blastocladiomycota have been explored as agents of biological control.[82][83] From Chytridiomycota, Synchytrium solstitiale is being considered as a control agent of the yellow star thistle (Centaurea solstitialis) in the United States.[84]
Viruses
Baculoviruses are specific to individual insect host species and have been shown to be useful in biological pest control. For example, the Lymantria dispar multicapsid nuclear polyhedrosis virus has been used to spray large areas of forest in North America where larvae of the spongy moth are causing serious defoliation. The moth larvae are killed by the virus they have eaten and die, the disintegrating cadavers leaving virus particles on the foliage to infect other larvae.[85]
A mammalian virus, the
RNA mycoviruses are controls of various fungal pathogens.[M 2]
Oomycota
Lagenidium giganteum is a water-borne mold that parasitizes the larval stage of mosquitoes. When applied to water, the motile spores avoid unsuitable host species and search out suitable mosquito larval hosts. This mold has the advantages of a dormant phase, resistant to desiccation, with slow-release characteristics over several years. Unfortunately, it is susceptible to many chemicals used in mosquito abatement programmes.[89]
Competitors
The
The Australian bush fly,
Combined use of parasitoids and pathogens
In cases of massive and severe infection of invasive pests, techniques of pest control are often used in combination. An example is the
Target pests
Fungal pests
Difficulties
Many of the most important pests are exotic, invasive species that severely impact agriculture, horticulture, forestry, and urban environments. They tend to arrive without their co-evolved parasites, pathogens and predators, and by escaping from these, populations may soar. Importing the natural enemies of these pests may seem a logical move but this may have unintended consequences; regulations may be ineffective and there may be unanticipated effects on biodiversity, and the adoption of the techniques may prove challenging because of a lack of knowledge among farmers and growers.[96]
Side effects
Biological control can affect biodiversity[14] through predation, parasitism, pathogenicity, competition, or other attacks on non-target species.[97] An introduced control does not always target only the intended pest species; it can also target native species.[98] In Hawaii during the 1940s parasitic wasps were introduced to control a lepidopteran pest and the wasps are still found there today. This may have a negative impact on the native ecosystem; however, host range and impacts need to be studied before declaring their impact on the environment.[99]
Vertebrate animals tend to be generalist feeders, and seldom make good biological control agents; many of the classic cases of "biocontrol gone awry" involve vertebrates. For example, the
Rhinocyllus conicus, a seed-feeding weevil, was introduced to North America to control exotic musk thistle (Carduus nutans) and Canadian thistle (Cirsium arvense). However, the weevil also attacks native thistles, harming such species as the endemic Platte thistle (Cirsium neomexicanum) by selecting larger plants (which reduced the gene pool), reducing seed production and ultimately threatening the species' survival.[102] Similarly, the weevil Larinus planus was also used to try to control the Canadian thistle, but it damaged other thistles as well.[103][104] This included one species classified as threatened.[105]
The
The sturdy and prolific eastern mosquitofish (Gambusia holbrooki) is a native of the southeastern United States and was introduced around the world in the 1930s and '40s to feed on mosquito larvae and thus combat malaria. However, it has thrived at the expense of local species, causing a decline of endemic fish and frogs through competition for food resources, as well as through eating their eggs and larvae.[107] In Australia, control of the mosquitofish is the subject of discussion; in 1989 researchers A. H. Arthington and L. L. Lloyd stated that "biological population control is well beyond present capabilities".[108]
Grower education
A potential obstacle to the adoption of biological pest control measures is that growers may prefer to stay with the familiar use of pesticides. However, pesticides have undesired effects, including the development of resistance among pests, and the destruction of natural enemies; these may in turn enable outbreaks of pests of other species than the ones originally targeted, and on crops at a distance from those treated with pesticides.[109] One method of increasing grower adoption of biocontrol methods involves letting them learn by doing, for example showing them simple field experiments, enabling them to observe the live predation of pests, or demonstrations of parasitised pests. In the Philippines, early-season sprays against leaf folder caterpillars were common practice, but growers were asked to follow a 'rule of thumb' of not spraying against leaf folders for the first 30 days after transplanting; participation in this resulted in a reduction of insecticide use by 1/3 and a change in grower perception of insecticide use.[110]
Related techniques
Related to biological pest control is the technique of introducing sterile individuals into the native population of some organism. This technique is widely practised with
See also
- Beneficial insects
- Biological control of gorse in New Zealand
- Chitosan
- Companion planting
- Insectary plants
- International Organization for Biological Control
- Inundative application
- Mating disruption
- Nematophagous fungus
- Organic gardening
- Organic farming
- Permaculture zone 5
- Sustainable farming
- Sustainable gardening
- Zero Budget Farming
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Further reading
General
- Wiedenmann, R. (2000). Introduction to Biological Control Archived 2011-08-10 at the Wayback Machine. Midwest Institute for Biological Control, Illinois.
- Cowie, R. H. (2001). "Can snails ever be effective and safe biocontrol agents?" (PDF). International Journal of Pest Management. 47 (1): 23–40. S2CID 51510769. Archived from the original(PDF) on 2010-10-11. Retrieved 2010-04-07.
- Cook, R. James (September 1993). "Making Greater Use of Introduced Microorganisms for Biological Control of Plant Pathogens". Annual Review of Phytopathology. 31 (1): 53–80. PMID 18643761.
- U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment (1995). "Biologically based technologies for pest control" (PDF). Ota-Env-636.
- Felix Wäckers; Paul van Rijn & Jan Bruin (2005). Plant-Provided Food for Carnivorous Insects – a protective mutualism and its applications. Cambridge University Press, 2005. ISBN 978-0-521-81941-1.
Effects on native biodiversity
- Pereira, M. J.; et al. (1998). "Conservation of natural vegetation in Azores Islands". Bol. Mus. Munic. Funchal. 5: 299–305.
- Weeden, C. R.; Shelton, A. M.; Hoffman, M. P. Biological Control: A Guide to Natural Enemies in North America.
- Cane toad: a case study. 2003.
- Humphrey, J. and Hyatt. 2004. CSIRO Australian Animal Health Laboratory. Biological Control of the Cane Toad Bufo marinus in Australia
- Cory, J.; Myers, J. (2000). "Direct and indirect ecological effects of biological control". Trends in Ecology & Evolution. 15 (4): 137–139. .
- Johnson, M. 2000. Nature and Scope of Biological Control. Biological Control of Pests.
Economic effects
- Griffiths, G. J. K. (2007). "Efficacy and economics of shelter habitats for conservation". Biological Control. 45: 200–209. .
- Collier, T.; Steenwyka, R. (2003). "A critical evaluation of augmentative biological control". Economics of Augmentation. 31 (2): 245–256. .