Bioplastic
Bioplastics are
One advantage of bioplastics is their independence from
The distinction between non-fossil-based (bio)plastic and fossil-based plastic is of limited relevance since materials such as petroleum are themselves merely fossilized biomass. As such, whether any kind of plastic is degradable or non-degradable (durable) depends on its molecular structure, not on whether or not the biomass constituting the raw material is fossilized. Both durable bioplastics, such as
As of 2018, bioplastics represented approximately 2% of the global plastics output (>380 million tons).[6] With continued research on bioplastics, investment in bioplastic companies and rising scrutiny on fossil-based plastics, bioplastics are becoming more dominant in some markets, while the output of fossil plastics also steadily increases.
IUPAC definition
The International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry define biobased polymer as:
Biobased polymer derived from the biomass or issued from monomers derived from the biomass and which, at some stage in its processing into finished products, can be shaped by flow.
- Note 1: Bioplastic is generally used as the opposite of polymer derived from fossil resources.
- Note 2: Bioplastic is misleading because it suggests that any polymer derived from the biomass is environmentally friendly.
- Note 3: The use of the term "bioplastic" is discouraged. Use the expression "biobased polymer".
- Note 4: A biobased polymer similar to a petrobased one does not imply any superiority with respect to the environment unless the comparison of respective life cycle assessments is favourable.[7]
Proposed applications
Few commercial applications exist for bioplastics. Cost and performance remain problematic. Typical is the example of Italy, where biodegradable plastic bags are compulsory for shoppers since 2011 with the introduction of a specific law.[8] Beyond structural materials, electroactive bioplastics are being developed that promise to carry electric current.[9]
Bioplastics are used for disposable items, such as packaging, crockery, cutlery, pots, bowls, and straws.[10]
Biopolymers are available as coatings for paper rather than the more common petrochemical coatings.[11]
Bioplastics called drop-in bioplastics are chemically identical to their fossil-fuel counterparts but made from renewable resources. Examples include
Types
Polysaccharide-based bioplastics
Starch-based plastics
Starch-based bioplastics are often blended with biodegradable polyesters to produce starch/polylactic acid,[23] starch/polycaprolactone[24] or starch/Ecoflex[25] (polybutylene adipate-co-terephthalate produced by BASF[26]) blends. These blends are used for industrial applications and are also compostable. Other producers, such as Roquette, have developed other starch/polyolefin blends. These blends are not biodegradable, but have a lower carbon footprint than petroleum-based plastics used for the same applications.[27]
Starch is cheap, abundant, and renewable.[28]
Starch-based films (mostly used for packaging purposes) are made mainly from starch blended with thermoplastic polyesters to form biodegradable and compostable products. These films are seen specifically in consumer goods packaging of magazine wrappings and bubble films. In food packaging, these films are seen as bakery or fruit and vegetable bags. Composting bags with this films are used in selective collecting of organic waste.[28] Further, starch-based films can be used as a paper.[29][30]
Starch-based nanocomposites have been widely studied, showing improved mechanical properties, thermal stability, moisture resistance, and gas barrier properties.[31]
Cellulose-based plastics
Cellulose can become thermoplastic when extensively modified. An example of this is cellulose acetate, which is expensive and therefore rarely used for packaging. However, cellulosic fibers added to starches can improve mechanical properties, permeability to gas, and water resistance due to being less hydrophilic than starch.[28]
A group at Shanghai University was able to construct a novel green plastic based on cellulose through a method called hot pressing.[32]
Protein-based plastics
Bioplastics can be made from proteins from different sources. For example, wheat gluten and casein show promising properties as a raw material for different biodegradable polymers.[34]
Additionally, soy protein is being considered as another source of bioplastic. Soy proteins have been used in plastic production for over one hundred years. For example, body panels of an original Ford automobile were made of soy-based plastic.[35]
There are difficulties with using soy protein-based plastics due to their water sensitivity and relatively high cost. Therefore, producing blends of soy protein with some already-available biodegradable polyesters improves the water sensitivity and cost.[36]
Some aliphatic polyesters
The
Polylactic acid (PLA)
Poly-3-hydroxybutyrate
The biopolymer poly-3-hydroxybutyrate (PHB) is a polyester produced by certain bacteria processing glucose, corn starch[39] or wastewater.[40] Its characteristics are similar to those of the petroplastic polypropylene (PP). PHB production is increasing. The South American sugar industry, for example, has decided to expand PHB production to an industrial scale. PHB is distinguished primarily by its physical characteristics. It can be processed into a transparent film with a melting point higher than 130 degrees Celsius, and is biodegradable without residue.
Polyhydroxyalkanoates
Polyamide 11
A similar plastic is Polyamide 410 (PA 410), derived 70% from castor oil, under the trade name EcoPaXX, commercialized by DSM.[41] PA 410 is a high-performance polyamide that combines the benefits of a high melting point (approx. 250 °C), low moisture absorption and excellent resistance to various chemical substances.
Bio-derived polyethylene
The basic building block (monomer) of polyethylene is ethylene. Ethylene is chemically similar to, and can be derived from ethanol, which can be produced by fermentation of agricultural feedstocks such as sugar cane or corn. Bio-derived polyethylene is chemically and physically identical to traditional polyethylene – it does not biodegrade but can be recycled. The Brazilian chemicals group Braskem claims that using its method of producing polyethylene from sugar cane ethanol captures (removes from the environment) 2.15 tonnes of CO2 per tonne of Green Polyethylene produced.
Genetically modified feedstocks
With
Under the bioplastics manufacturing technologies there is the "plant factory" model, which uses
Polyhydroxyurethanes
The condensation of polyamines and cyclic carbonates produces polyhydroxyurethanes.[42] Unlike traditional cross-linked polyurethanes, cross-linked polyhydroxyurethanes are in principle amenable to recycling and reprocessing through dynamic transcarbamoylation reactions.[43]
Lipid derived polymers
A number bioplastic classes have been synthesized from
Environmental impact
Materials such as starch, cellulose, wood, sugar and biomass are used as a substitute for fossil fuel resources to produce bioplastics; this makes the production of bioplastics a more sustainable activity compared to conventional plastic production.
Although bioplastics save more nonrenewable energy than conventional plastics and emit less greenhouse gasses compared to conventional plastics, bioplastics also have negative environmental impacts such as eutrophication and acidification.[55] Bioplastics induce higher eutrophication potentials than conventional plastics.[55] Biomass production during industrial farming practices causes nitrate and phosphate to filtrate into water bodies; this causes eutrophication, the process in which a body of water gains excessive richness of nutrients.[55] Eutrophication is a threat to water resources around the world since it causes harmful algal blooms that create oxygen dead zones, killing aquatic animals.[57] Bioplastics also increase acidification.[55] The high increase in eutrophication and acidification caused by bioplastics is also caused by using chemical fertilizer in the cultivation of renewable raw materials to produce bioplastics.[51]
Other environmental impacts of bioplastics include exerting lower human and terrestrial
Although bioplastics are extremely advantageous because they reduce non-renewable consumption and GHG emissions, they also negatively affect the environment through land and water consumption, using pesticide and fertilizer, eutrophication and acidification; hence one's preference for either bioplastics or conventional plastics depends on what one considers the most important environmental impact.[51]
Another issue with bioplastics, is that some bioplastics are made from the edible parts of crops. This makes the bioplastics compete with food production because the crops that produce bioplastics can also be used to feed people.[60] These bioplastics are called "1st generation feedstock bioplastics". 2nd generation feedstock bioplastics use non-food crops (cellulosic feedstock) or waste materials from 1st generation feedstock (e.g. waste vegetable oil). Third generation feedstock bioplastics use algae as the feedstock.[61]
Biodegradation of Bioplastics
Biodegradation of any plastic is a process that happens at solid/liquid interface whereby the enzymes in the liquid phase depolymerize the solid phase.
Industry and markets
While plastics based on organic materials were manufactured by chemical companies throughout the 20th century, the first company solely focused on bioplastics—Marlborough Biopolymers—was founded in 1983. However, Marlborough and other ventures that followed failed to find commercial success, with the first such company to secure long-term financial success being the Italian company Novamont, founded in 1989.[65]
Bioplastics remain less than one percent of all plastics manufactured worldwide.[66][67] Most bioplastics do not yet save more carbon emissions than are required to manufacture them.[68] It is estimated that replacing 250 million tons of the plastic manufactured each year with bio-based plastics would require 100 million hectares of land, or 7 percent of the arable land on Earth. And when bioplastics reach the end of their life cycle, those designed to be compostable and marketed as biodegradable are often sent to landfills due to the lack of proper composting facilities or waste sorting, where they then release methane as they break down anaerobically.[69]
COPA (Committee of Agricultural Organisation in the European Union) and COGEGA (General Committee for the Agricultural Cooperation in the European Union) have made an assessment of the potential of bioplastics in different sectors of the European economy:
Sector | Tonnes per year | |
---|---|---|
Catering products | 450,000 | |
Organic waste bags | 100,000 | |
Biodegradable mulch foils |
130,000 | |
Biodegradable foils for diapers | 80,000 | |
Diapers, 100% biodegradable | 240,000 | |
Foil packaging | 400,000 | |
Vegetable packaging | 400,000 | |
Tyre components | 200,000 | |
Total: | 2,000,000 |
History and development of bioplastics
- 1925: Polyhydroxybutyrate was isolated and characterised by French microbiologist Maurice Lemoigne
- 1855: First (inferior) version of linoleum produced
- 1862: At the Great London Exhibition, Parkesine, the first thermoplastic. Parkesine is made from nitrocellulose and had very good properties, but exhibits extreme flammability. (White 1998)[70]
- 1897: Still produced today, Galalith is a milk-based bioplastic that was created by German chemists in 1897. Galalith is primarily found in buttons. (Thielen 2014)[71]
- 1907: Leo Baekeland invented Bakelite, which received the National Historic Chemical Landmark for its non-conductivity and heat-resistant properties. It is used in radio and telephone casings, kitchenware, firearms and many more products. (Pathak, Sneha, Mathew 2014)
- 1912: Brandenberger invents Cellophane out of wood, cotton, or hemp cellulose. (Thielen 2014)[71]
- 1920s: Wallace Carothers finds Polylactic Acid (PLA) plastic. PLA is incredibly expensive to produce and is not mass-produced until 1989. (Whiteclouds 2018)
- 1926: Maurice Lemoigne invents polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB) which is the first bioplastic made from bacteria. (Thielen 2014)[71]
- 1930s: The first bioplastic car was made from soy beans by Henry Ford. (Thielen 2014)[71][72]
- 1940-1945: During World War II, an increase in plastic production is seen as it is used in many wartime materials. Due to government funding and oversight the United States production of plastics (in general, not just bioplastics) tripled during 1940-1945 (Rogers 2005).[73] The 1942 U.S. government short film The Tree in a Test Tube illustrates the major role bioplastics played in the World War II victory effort and the American economy of the time.
- 1950s: Amylomaize (>50% amylose content corn) was successfully bred and commercial bioplastics applications started to be explored. (Liu, Moult, Long, 2009)[74] A decline in bioplastic development is seen due to the cheap oil prices, however the development of synthetic plastics continues.
- 1970s: The environmental movement spurred more development in bioplastics. (Rogers 2005)[73]
- 1983: The first bioplastics company, Marlborough Biopolymers, is started which uses a bacteria-based bioplastic called biopal. (Feder 1985)[75]
- 1989: The further development of PLA is made by Dr. Patrick R. Gruber when he figures out how to create PLA from corn. (Whiteclouds 2018). The leading bioplastic company is created called Novamount. Novamount uses matter-bi, a bioplastic, in multiple different applications. (Novamount 2018)[76]
- 1992: It is reported in Science that PHB can be produced by the plant Arabidopsis thaliana. (Poirier, Dennis, Klomparens, Nawrath, Somerville 1992)[77]
- Late 1990s: The development of TP starch and BIOPLAST from research and production of the company BIOTEC lead to the BIOFLEX film. BIOFLEX film can be classified as blown film extrusion, flat film extrusion, and injection moulding lines. These three classifications have applications as follows: Blown films - sacks, bags, trash bags, mulch foils, hygiene products, diaper films, air bubble films, protective clothing, gloves, double rib bags, labels, barrier ribbons; Flat films - trays, flower pots, freezer products and packaging, cups, pharmaceutical packaging; Injection moulding - disposable cutlery, cans, containers, performed pieces, CD trays, cemetery articles, golf tees, toys, writing materials. (Lorcks 1998)[78]
- 2001: Metabolix inc. purchases Monsanto's biopol business (originally Zeneca) which uses plants to produce bioplastics. (Barber and Fisher 2001)[79]
- 2001: Nick Tucker uses elephant grass as a bioplastic base to make plastic car parts. (Tucker 2001)[80]
- 2005: Cargill and Dow Chemicals is rebranded as NatureWorks and becomes the leading PLA producer. (Pennisi 2016)[81]
- 2007: Metabolix inc. market tests its first 100% biodegradable plastic called Mirel, made from corn sugar fermentation and genetically engineered bacteria. (Digregorio 2009)[82]
- 2012: A bioplastic is developed from seaweed proving to be one of the most environmentally friendly bioplastics based on research published in the journal of pharmacy research. (Rajendran, Puppala, Sneha, Angeeleena, Rajam 2012)[83]
- 2013: A patent is put on bioplastic derived from blood and a crosslinking agent like sugars, proteins, etc. (iridoid derivatives, diimidates, diones, carbodiimides, acrylamides, dimethylsuberimidates, aldehydes, Factor XIII, dihomo bifunctional NHS esters, carbonyldiimide, glyoxyls [sic], proanthocyanidin, reuterin). This invention can be applied by using the bioplastic as tissue, cartilage, tendons, ligaments, bones, and being used in stem cell delivery. (Campbell, Burgess, Weiss, Smith 2013)[84][85]
- 2014: It is found in a study published in 2014 that bioplastics can be made from blending vegetable waste (parsley and spinach stems, the husks from cocoa, the hulls of rice, etc.) with TFA solutions of pure cellulose creates a bioplastic. (Bayer, Guzman-Puyol, Heredia-Guerrero, Ceseracciu, Pignatelli, Ruffilli, Cingolani, and Athanassiou 2014)[86]
- 2016: An experiment finds that a car bumper that passes regulation can be made from nano-cellulose based bioplastic biomaterials using banana peels. (Hossain, Ibrahim, Aleissa 2016)[87]
- 2017: A new proposal for bioplastics made from Lignocellulosics resources (dry plant matter). (Brodin, Malin, Vallejos, Opedal, Area, Chinga-Carrasco 2017)[88]
- 2018: Many developments occur including Ikea starting industrial production of bioplastics furniture (Barret 2018), Project Effective focusing on replacing nylon with bio-nylon (Barret 2018), and the first packaging made from fruit (Barret 2018).[89]
- 2019: Five different types of Chitin nanomaterials were extracted and synthesized by the 'Korea Research Institute of Chemical Technology' to verify strong personality and antibacterial effects. When buried underground, 100% biodegradation was possible within six months.[90]
*This is not a comprehensive list. These inventions show the versatility of bioplastics and important breakthroughs. New applications and bioplastics inventions continue to occur.
Year | Bioplastic Discovery or Development |
---|---|
1862 | Parkesine - Alexander Parkes |
1868 | Celluloid - John Wesley Hyatt |
1897 | Galalith - German chemists |
1907 | Bakelite - Leo Baekeland |
1912 | Cellophane - Jacques E. Brandenberger |
1920s | Polylactic Acid (PLA) - Wallace Carothers |
1926 | Polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB) - Maurice Lemoigne |
1930s | Soy bean-based bioplastic car - Henry Ford |
1983 | Biopal - Marlborough Biopolymers |
1989 | PLA from corn - Dr. Patrick R. Gruber; Matter-bi - Novamount |
1992 | PHB can be produced by Arabidopsis thaliana (a small flowering plant) |
1998 | Bioflex film (blown, flat, injection molding) leads to many different applications of bioplastic |
2001 | PHB can be produced by elephant grass |
2007 | Mirel (100% biodegradable plastic) by Metabolic inc. is market tested |
2012 | Bioplastic is developed from seaweed |
2013 | Bioplastic made from blood and a cross-linking agent which is used in medical procedures |
2014 | Bioplastic made from vegetable waste |
2016 | Car bumper made from banana peel bioplastic |
2017 | Bioplastics made from lignocellulosic resources (dry plant matter) |
2018 | Bioplastic furniture, bio-nylon, packaging from fruit |
Testing procedures
Industrial compostability – EN 13432, ASTM D6400
The
Many
Compostability – ASTM D6002
The ASTM D 6002 method for determining the compostability of a plastic defined the word compostable as follows:
that which is capable of undergoing biological decomposition in a compost site such that the material is not visually distinguishable and breaks down into carbon dioxide, water, inorganic compounds and biomass at a rate consistent with known compostable materials.[91]
This section possibly contains original research. (September 2015) |
This definition drew much criticism because, contrary to the way the word is traditionally defined, it completely divorces the process of "composting" from the necessity of it leading to humus/compost as the end product. The only criterion this standard does describe is that a compostable plastic must look to be going away as fast as something else one has already established to be compostable under the traditional definition.
Withdrawal of ASTM D 6002
In January 2011, the ASTM withdrew standard ASTM D 6002, which had provided plastic manufacturers with the legal credibility to label a plastic as
This guide covered suggested criteria, procedures, and a general approach to establish the compostability of environmentally degradable plastics.[92]
The ASTM has yet to replace this standard.
Biobased – ASTM D6866
The ASTM D6866 method has been developed to certify the biologically derived content of bioplastics. Cosmic rays colliding with the atmosphere mean that some of the carbon is the radioactive isotope
There is an important difference between
Anaerobic biodegradability – ASTM D5511-02 and ASTM D5526
The ASTM D5511-12 and ASTM D5526-12 are testing methods that comply with international standards such as the ISO DIS 15985 for the
See also
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Further reading
- Plastics Without Petroleum History and Politics of 'Green' Plastics in the United States
- Plastics and the environment
- "The Social construction of Bakelite: Toward a theory of invention" in The Social Construction of Technological Systems, pp. 155–182
External links
- Assessment of China's Market for Biodegradable Plastics Archived 2021-09-04 at the Wayback Machine, May 2017, GCiS China Strategic Research