Bismarck-class battleship
Bismarck underway near Blankenese in 1940
| |
Class overview | |
---|---|
Name | Bismarck-class battleship |
Operators | Kriegsmarine |
Preceded by | Scharnhorst class |
Succeeded by | H class (planned) |
Built | 1936–1941 |
In commission | 1940–1944 |
Completed | 2 |
Lost | 2 |
General characteristics | |
Type | Fast battleship |
Displacement |
|
Length | |
Beam | 36 m (118 ft 1 in) |
Draft | 9.30 m (30 ft 6 in) standard[b] |
Installed power |
|
Propulsion |
|
Speed | 30 knots (56 km/h; 35 mph) |
Range |
|
Complement |
|
Armament |
|
Armor | |
Aircraft carried | 4 × Arado Ar 196 |
Aviation facilities | 1 double-ended catapult |
The Bismarck class was a pair of fast battleships built for Nazi Germany's Kriegsmarine shortly before the outbreak of World War II. The ships were the largest and most powerful warships built for the Kriegsmarine; displacing more than 41,000 metric tons (40,000 long tons) normally, they were armed with a battery of eight 38 cm (15 in) guns and were capable of a top speed of 30 knots (56 km/h; 35 mph). Bismarck was laid down in July 1936 and completed in September 1940, while her sister Tirpitz's keel was laid in October 1936 and work finished in February 1941. The ships were ordered in response to the French Richelieu-class battleships. They were designed with the traditional role of engaging enemy battleships in home waters in mind, though the German naval command envisioned employing the ships as long-range commerce raiders against British shipping in the Atlantic Ocean. As such, their design represented the strategic confusion that dominated German naval construction in the 1930s.
Both ships had short service careers. Bismarck conducted only one operation, Operation Rheinübung, a sortie into the North Atlantic to raid supply convoys sent from North America to Great Britain. During the operation, she destroyed the British battlecruiser HMS Hood and damaged the new battleship Prince of Wales in the Battle of the Denmark Strait. Bismarck was defeated and sunk in a final engagement after a three-day chase by the Royal Navy. Although some disagreement over the cause of the sinking persists, evidence reviewed by Robert Ballard and James Cameron indicates that her loss was due to a combination of battle damage and scuttling, with the Royal Navy battleships Rodney and King George V inflicting fatal damage before Bismarck's crew scuttled the foundering ship.
Tirpitz's career was less dramatic; she operated in the
Design
A series of conceptual designs was begun by the Reichsmarine (Navy of the Realm) in 1932 to determine the ideal characteristics of a battleship built to the 35,000 long tons (36,000 t) limit of the Washington Naval Treaty. These early studies determined that the ship should be armed with eight 33 cm (13 in) guns, have a top speed of 30 knots (56 km/h; 35 mph), and have strong armor protection.[4] At the time, the German Navy was constrained by the terms of the Treaty of Versailles that had ended World War I, which restricted battleships to a maximum displacement of 10,000 long tons (10,160 t). The sketch design for what became the Bismarck class was produced by the Construction Office in 1933 and the final design agreed 1936.[5][3] Ministerial advisor Hermann Burckhardt was responsible for the project, and he later supervised the launching of Tirpitz.[6] During this period, the naval leadership grappled with a variety of problems, including the strategic and operational use of such a ship and the preferred propulsion system. War games suggested that the new battleships could be used both to attack French shipping at long range and to fight in a traditional battle against the French and Polish navies, then seen as the most likely threats.[7] Due to the numerical inferiority of the German fleet and the assumption that naval battles would take place at relatively close range in the North Sea, the design staff placed great emphasis on stability and armor protection. Very thick vertical belt armor was adopted, along with heavy upper-citadel armor plating and extensive splinter protection in the bow and stern of the ships.[8]
The Reichsmarine learned in June 1934 that Italy had decided to build a pair of 35,000-ton battleships armed with 35 cm (13.8 in) guns—the
The design staff had decided that four twin turrets would provide the best solution to distribution of the main battery, as it would provide equal firepower forward and aft, as well as simplify fire control. This arrangement was similar to the last German battleships of the
In June 1935, Germany signed the Anglo-German Naval Agreement, which allowed Germany to build battleships at a ratio of 35 percent to the total tonnage of the Royal Navy;[13] this granted Germany effective parity with France, at least in terms of allotted tonnage.[14] It also made Germany party to the international treaty system begun at the Washington Conference.[4] By this time, the only significant issue to be settled was the propulsion system, which was largely dependent on strategic questions. Many senior officers in the navy envisioned using the Bismarck class in the Atlantic Ocean, which would require a long cruising range.[15] The naval constructors examined diesel engines, steam turbines, and turbo-electric drive engines; the last system was the preferred choice, as it had been extremely successful in the two American Lexington-class aircraft carriers and the French passenger ship Normandie.[11] The design staff were also required to provide sufficient range to the new battleships; they would have to make long voyages from German ports to reach the Atlantic, and Germany had no overseas bases where the ships could refuel.[16] Raeder ordered the turbo-electric engines for the new ships, but the contracting manufacturer, Siemens-Schuckert, could not meet the navy's requirements and removed itself from the project less than a month before construction on Bismarck began, forcing the navy to revert to high-pressure steam turbines.[17]
The displacement of Bismarck and Tirpitz was ultimately limited by the capabilities of existing infrastructure in
Even though Raeder and other senior naval officers envisioned using Bismarck and Tirpitz as commerce raiders against first French and later British shipping in the Atlantic, and in fact used them in that role during World War II, the ships were not designed for that mission. Their steam turbines did not afford the necessary cruising radius for such a role, and many of the decisions made for the ships' armament and armor layout reflect the expectation to fight a traditional naval battle at relatively close range in the North Sea. The disconnect between how Bismarck and Tirpitz were designed and how they were ultimately used represents the strategic incoherence that dominated German naval construction in the 1930s.[8][20]
General characteristics
The Bismarck-class battleships were 251 m (823 ft 6 in) long
The ships were very stable, primarily because of their wide beam. The ships suffered from only slight pitching and rolling, even in the heavy seas of the North Atlantic. Bismarck and Tirpitz were responsive to commands from the helm; they were capable of maneuvering with rudder deflections as small as 5°. With the rudder completely over, the ships heeled only 3°, but lost up to 65% of their speed. The ships handled poorly at low speeds or when traveling astern. As a result, tugs were necessary in confined areas to avoid collisions or grounding. The ships had a standard crew of 103 officers and 1,962 enlisted sailors, although the crew of Tirpitz expanded to 108 officers and 2,500 men by 1943.[22] The ships carried smaller boats, including three picket boats, four barges, one launch, two pinnaces, two cutters, two yawls, and two dinghies.[1]
Although both ships were from the same class, there were substantial differences between Bismarck and Tirpitz. The funnel cap on Bismarck was silver-grey, however the cap on Tirpitz was always black. The two cranes on Bismarck were sited 3.5 m (11 ft) further outboard and 3 m (9.8 ft) further aft, and Tirpitz mounted her two cranes on the superstructure deck. The 10.5 cm (4.1 in) flak guns (starboard II and port II) were mounted 5 m (16 ft) further inboard on Bismarck. When Bismarck was launched she had a straight stem, and Tirpitz had the Atlantic bow. Both ships had a
Propulsion
The Bismarck-class ships both had three sets of geared turbine engines; Bismarck was equipped with
Both ships were rated for a top speed of 30 knots (56 km/h; 35 mph); Bismarck just exceeded this speed on
Robert Ballard, the discoverer of Bismarck, noted that the adoption of the three-shaft arrangement caused serious problems for Bismarck. The center shaft weakened the keel, especially where it emerged from the hull. In addition to retaining greater hull strength, a four-shaft arrangement would have allowed a greater ability to steer the ship using only propeller revolutions than the three-screw system according to Ballard.[26] During Bismarck's Atlantic operation in May 1941, the ship's rudder was disabled by a torpedo hit, and her course could not be corrected by altering screw revolutions;[27] this problem had already been revealed during sea trials, but it could not be corrected.[28]
Electric power was provided by a variety of generators, including two electric plants of four 500 kW diesel generators, two electric plants each with five 690 kW turbo-generators, one at 460 kW generator connected to a 400 kVA AC generator and one 550 kVA AC diesel generator. The generators were manufactured by Garbe, Lahmeyer & Co.[29] The electrical plant provided a total 7,910 kW at 220 volts.[1]
Armament
Main battery
Bismarck's and Tirpitz's main battery consisted of eight 38 cm (15 in) SK C/34 guns in four twin turrets, Anton and Bruno in a superfiring pair forward of the superstructure and Caesar and Dora aft.[30] The turrets allowed elevation to 30°, which gave the guns a maximum range of 36,520 m (39,940 yd). The guns fired 800 kg (1,800 lb) projectiles at a muzzle velocity of 820 meters per second (2,690 ft/s).[31] The main battery was supplied with between 940 and 960 shells total, for approximately 115–120 shells per gun.[1] As with other German large-caliber naval rifles, these guns were designed by Krupp and featured sliding wedge breech blocks, which required brass cartridge cases for the propellant charges. Under optimal conditions, the rate of fire was one shot every 18 seconds, or three per minute.[32] The gun turrets were electrically trained and the guns were hydraulically elevated. Gun elevation was controlled remotely. The turrets required each gun to return to 2.5° elevation for loading.[33] Tirpitz was eventually provided with time-fuzed shells to combat the repeated Allied bombing attacks.[34]
The Bismarcks' use of four twin turrets (the 4 × 2 configuration) was a design practice that hearkened back to the First World War. Almost all other post-1921 capital ships had triple or even quadruple turrets, which allowed for additional heavy caliber guns, while reducing the number of turrets.[d] Fewer turrets reduced the length of the battleship's armored citadel (particularly magazine length and the armor needed to protect it) and shortened the vessel itself. Although triple turrets were considered for the Bismarcks, there were concerns that the extra barrel would lower the overall rate of fire in each turret, along with fears that a single well-aimed hit could disable a larger proportion of the ship's firepower. It was also felt that four twin turrets allowed for a better field of fire and a more effective sequence of salvos.[35]
Secondary battery
The ships' secondary battery consisted of twelve 15 cm (5.9 in) SK C/28 guns mounted in six twin turrets.[36] The 15 cm gun turrets were based on the single-gun turrets used aboard the Scharnhorst class. They could elevate to 40° and depress to −10°; they had a rate of fire of around six shots per minute.[34] The 15 cm guns fired a 45.3 kg (100 lb) shell at a muzzle velocity of 875 m/s (2,871 ft/s). At maximum elevation, the guns could hit targets out to 23,000 m (25,000 yd).[31] As with the main battery guns, Tirpitz's 15 cm guns were later supplied with time-fused shells.[34]
The decision to mount low-angle 15 cm guns has been criticized by naval historians, including Antony Preston, who stated that they "imposed a severe weight penalty", while American and British battleships were being armed with dual-purpose guns.[37] Naval historians William Garzke and Robert Dulin note that "the use of dual-purpose armament would have possibly increased the number of anti-aircraft guns, but might have weakened the defence against destroyer attack, which German naval experts deemed more important."[38]
Anti-aircraft battery
As built, Bismarck and Tirpitz were equipped with an anti-aircraft battery of sixteen
The ships' 3.7 cm 83-caliber guns were twin mounted and placed in the superstructure. The mounts were hand-operated and automatically stabilized for roll and pitch.[40] These guns were supplied with a total of 32,000 rounds of ammunition.[41] Bismarck and Tirpitz were initially armed with twelve 2 cm guns in single mounts, though these were augmented over time.[1] Both ships initially carried twenty-four thousand 2 cm rounds.[41] Bismarck received a pair of quadruple gun mountings, for a total of twenty 2 cm guns. Over the course of her career, Tirpitz's 2 cm battery was increased to 78 guns in single and quadruple mountings.[40] By 1944 she carried over ninety thousand 2 cm rounds.[41]
Torpedo armament
Bismarck had none, while Tirpitz was fitted with two banks of 53.3 cm (21 in) quadruple torpedo tube mounts between the end of 1941 and early 1942. Tirpitz carried 24 torpedoes.[41]
Armor
The armor plate was mainly
The forward conning tower had a 200 mm (7.9 in) thick roof and 350 mm (13.8 in) thick sides, while the range finder had an armored roof 100 mm (4 in) thick and 200 mm (8 in) thick sides. The aft conning tower had much lighter armor: the roof was 50 mm thick and the sides were 150 mm (5.9 in), while the aft range finder had a 50 mm thick roof and 100 mm sides. The main battery turrets were reasonably well-protected: the turret forward roofs were 180 mm (7.1 in) and roof rears were 130 mm (5.1 in) thick, the sides were 220 mm thick, and the faces were 360 mm (14 in) thick with 220 mm (8.7 in) thick shields.[3] These armor thicknesses were less than those of contemporary British (King George V) and French (Richelieu) designs. Conversely, the secondary battery was better-protected than most rivals.[43] The 15 cm gun turrets had 35 mm (1.4 in) thick roofs, 40 mm (1.6 in) sides, and 100 mm fronts. The 10.5 cm guns had 20 mm (0.79 in) shields.[3] The roof armor was 40mm (1.6 in).[42]
Regarding underwater protection, the armor was resistant to a 250 kg TNT explosive charge. Armor depth was 5.5 meters (216.5 in), with the longitudinal bulkhead thickness being 53 mm (2.1 in). Overall bottom protection had a depth of 1.7 meters (66.9 in). The citadel could resist a hit from a 38 cm shell of a weight of 1,016 kg fired from ranges between 10,793 meters and 21,031 meters for the machinery, and from 23,319 meters for the magazine.[44]
Construction
Bismarck was
Tirpitz's keel was laid at the Kriegsmarinewerft (Kriegsmarine Shipyard) in Wilhelmshaven on 20 October 1936,[36] under construction number 128. She had been ordered under the contract name Ersatz Schleswig-Holstein to replace the obsolete battleship Schleswig-Holstein.[3] Tirpitz was named for Grand Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz, the architect of the High Seas Fleet before World War I. His daughter, Ilse von Hassel, christened the ship on 1 April 1939. Fitting out work lasted until February 1941;[46] Tirpitz was commissioned into the fleet on 25 February.[1] A series of trials were then conducted, first in the North Sea and then in the Baltic.[47]
Ships
Ship | Builder | Namesake | Laid down | Launched | Commissioned | Fate |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Bismarck | Blohm & Voss,
Hamburg |
Otto von Bismarck | 1 July 1936 | 14 February 1939 | 24 August 1940 | Sunk following surface action , 27 May 1941
|
Tirpitz | Kriegsmarinewerft, Wilhelmshaven |
Alfred von Tirpitz | 2 November 1936 | 1 April 1939 | 25 February 1941 | Sunk in air attack at Tromsø, 12 November 1944 |
Service history
Bismarck
After Bismarck joined the fleet, plans were drawn up for a sortie into the North Atlantic, which was codenamed Operation Rheinübung (Rhine Exercise). The operation initially called for a force composed of Bismarck, Tirpitz, and the two Scharnhorst-class battleships. Tirpitz was not yet ready for service by May 1941, and Scharnhorst was being overhauled. The force was reduced to Bismarck, Gneisenau, and the heavy cruiser Prinz Eugen. Gneisenau was damaged by a British bombing raid on Brest, so it was decided that only Bismarck and Prinz Eugen would conduct the operation. Admiral Günther Lütjens was placed in command of the pair of ships.[48]
Early on the morning of 19 May, Bismarck left
By 23 May, Bismarck and Prinz Eugen had reached the Denmark Strait. That evening, the British cruisers Suffolk and Norfolk briefly engaged Bismarck before dropping back to shadow the German ships.[52] At 06:00 the following morning, observers aboard Bismarck spotted the masts of the battlecruiser Hood and the new battleship Prince of Wales.[53] The British ships steamed directly towards Bismarck and Prinz Eugen, before attempting a turn to bring the two forces on a roughly parallel course. During the turn, at least one of Bismarck's 38 cm shells penetrated one of the aft ammunition magazines aboard Hood, which caused a catastrophic explosion and destroyed the ship.[54] There were only three survivors from Hood's crew of 1,421. The German ships then concentrated their fire on Prince of Wales, which was forced to withdraw. Bismarck did not emerge unscathed; a direct hit on her bow from Prince of Wales caused Bismarck to take in some 2,000 long tons (2,032 t) of water. The ship was also leaking oil, which made it easier for the British to track her.[55]
After retreating, Prince of Wales joined Norfolk and Suffolk; the ships briefly engaged Bismarck at around 18:00. Neither side scored a hit.[56] By this time, 19 warships were involved in the chase.[57] This included six battleships and battlecruisers and two aircraft carriers, along with a number of cruisers and destroyers.[58] After the second engagement with Prince of Wales, Lütjens detached Prinz Eugen to continue the operation while Bismarck sailed for port.[59] Shortly before midnight on 24 May, a group of Fairey Swordfish torpedo bombers from 825 Naval Air Squadron on Victorious attacked Bismarck. One torpedo struck the ship amidships, though without doing any serious damage. The shock from the explosion, coupled with Bismarck's maneuvering at high speed, damaged the temporary repairs that had stopped the flooding from the earlier battle damage. Her speed was reduced to 16 knots (30 km/h; 18 mph) to slow the flooding while repair teams fixed the reopened wounds.[60]
Early on 25 May, Bismarck doubled back past her pursuers in a wide circle. The maneuver successfully shook off the British ships, which turned west in an attempt to find the ship. Despite the maneuver, Lütjens was unaware that he had evaded the British, and so sent a series of radio transmissions, which were intercepted by the British and used to gain a rough fix on his position.
An hour after the Swordfish attack, Lütjens transmitted the following signal to Naval Group Command West: "Ship unable to maneuver. We will fight to the last shell. Long live the Führer."[62] At 08:47 the following morning, the battleship Rodney opened fire, followed directly by King George V.[63] Bismarck replied three minutes later, though at 09:02 a 16-inch shell from Rodney destroyed the forward turrets.[64] Half an hour later, Bismarck's rear turrets were silenced as well.[65] At around 10:15, both British battleships had ceased fire, their target a burning wreck. The British were running dangerously low on fuel, but Bismarck, although aflame and foundering, had not yet sunk. The cruiser Dorsetshire fired several torpedoes into the crippled ship, which then took on a severe list to port. At approximately the same time as Dorsetshire's attack, engine room crew detonated scuttling charges in the engine rooms.[66] There is still significant debate as to the direct cause of Bismarck's sinking. Only 110 men were rescued by the British before reports of U-boats forced them from the scene.[67] A further five men were rescued by German vessels.[68]
Tirpitz
Tirpitz's first action following her commissioning into the Kriegsmarine on 25 February 1941 was to act as a deterrent to a possible Soviet attempt to break out their Baltic Fleet following the German invasion of the Soviet Union. The ship was joined by the heavy cruiser Admiral Scheer and the light cruisers Leipzig, Nürnberg, and Köln. The force patrolled off Åland for a few days before returning to Kiel.[69] On 14 January 1942, Tirpitz left German waters for Norway, escorted by the destroyers Z4 Richard Beitzen, Z5 Paul Jacobi, Z8 Bruno Heinemann and Z29,[70] arriving at Trondheim on the 17th.[71] The Germans used the ship as a fleet in being to tie down British naval forces to protect the convoy route to the Soviet Union and to deter an invasion of Norway.[72]
On 6 March, Tirpitz, escorted by the destroyers Z25, Z14 Friedrich Ihn, Z5 Paul Jacobi and Z7 Hermann Schoemann,[70] launched a raid on the British convoys to the Soviet Union.[69] The Germans attempted to intercept convoys PQ-12 and QP-8,[71] but the inclement weather prevented them from finding the convoys.[69] A Soviet freighter that was sailing independently of the convoys was sunk by the destroyers. The British submarines Trident and Seawolf reported Tirpitz. A Home Fleet squadron consisting of the battleships King George V and Duke of York, the aircraft carrier Victorious, the heavy cruiser Berwick and destroyers failed to find the Germans.[70] Victorious launched a strike of twelve Fairey Albacore torpedo bombers, however the aircraft were repulsed without having scored any hits on the German ships. Tirpitz and the destroyers were back in port by 12 March.[71] The close call prompted Hitler to mandate that Tirpitz was not to attack another convoy unless its escorting aircraft carrier had been sunk or disabled.[73]
The RAF launched a series of unsuccessful bombing raids against Tirpitz while she was moored in the
In January 1943, Tirpitz emerged from the lengthy overhaul, after which she was transferred to
The British resumed the series of air attacks almost immediately after repairs were completed. On 3 April, the Royal Navy launched Operation Tungsten, during which 40 fighters and 40 Barracuda bombers from six carriers attacked the ship. They scored 15 direct hits and two near misses, which caused heavy damage, killed 122 men, and wounded 316 more. The Royal Navy attempted to repeat the attack three weeks later on the 24th, but had to call the operation off due to inclement weather. Operation Brawn, another carrier-launched attack, followed on 15 May, but again weather interfered. Another carrier strike was attempted on 28 May, but it too was cancelled due to poor weather conditions. Operation Mascot, which was to be conducted by the carriers Victorious, Furious, and Indefatigable on 17 July, was frustrated by the heavy smokescreen over the battleship.[80]
The Royal Navy launched the Operation Goodwood series in late August. Goodwood I took place on 22 August, with 38 bombers and 43 fighters from five carriers. The attackers failed to score any hits. Goodwood III followed two days later, with 48 bombers and 29 fighters from Formidable, Furious, and Indefatigable. The bombers made two hits on the ship, which did only minor damage. The last Royal Navy operation, Goodwood IV, followed on 29 August. Thirty-four bombers and 25 fighters, launched from Formidable and Indefatigable, attacked the ship, though fog prevented them from scoring any hits.[80]
The task of sinking Tirpitz now fell to the RAF, which performed three airstrikes armed with new 5,400 kg (11,900 lb)
See also
- List of ship classes of the Second World War
Footnotes
Notes
- ^ Crews could be augmented up to 108 officers and 2,500 enlisted men.[1]
- ^ Bismarck's draft at full load was 9.90 m (32 ft 6 in), while Tirpitz's was 10.60 m (34 ft 9 in).[3]
- ^ By the time their design was finalized, the Littorios would be armed with nine 381 mm (15 in) guns.[9]
- ^ The only other post-1921 battleship or battlecruiser to use solely twin turrets for its main battery was the British battleship HMS Vanguard, in that case due to using a preexisting set of four turrets left over from shortly after the First World War.
Citations
- ^ a b c d e f Gröner, p. 35.
- ^ a b c Gröner, pp. 33–35.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i Gröner, p. 33.
- ^ a b Garzke & Dulin, p. 203.
- ^ Koop & Schmolke, p. 15.
- ^ a b Koop & Schmolke, p. 16.
- ^ Mulligan, pp. 1021–1023.
- ^ a b Garzke & Dulin, pp. 204–205.
- ^ Whitley, p. 169.
- ^ Mulligan, pp. 1023–1026.
- ^ a b Garzke & Dulin, p. 204.
- ^ Mulligan, pp. 1026–1028.
- ^ Maiolo, pp. 35–36.
- ^ Mulligan, p. 1028.
- ^ Mulligan, pp. 1028–1031.
- ^ Garzke & Dulin, pp. 205–206.
- ^ Mulligan, p. 1031.
- ^ Garzke & Dulin, p. 206.
- ^ Garzke & Dulin, p. 208.
- ^ Mulligan, pp. 1042–1043.
- ^ a b Preston, p. 151.
- ^ a b Koop & Schmolke, p. 18.
- ^ Koop & Schmolke, p. 17.
- ^ Koop & Schmolke, p. 25.
- ^ Mulligan, p. 1026.
- ^ Ballard, p. 232.
- ^ Garzke & Dulin, pp. 234–237.
- ^ Müllenheim-Rechberg, p. 39.
- ^ Koop & Schmolke, p. 28.
- ^ Gröner, pp. 34–35.
- ^ a b Garzke & Dulin, p. 275.
- ^ Garzke & Dulin, p. 274.
- ^ Garzke & Dulin, p. 278.
- ^ a b c Garzke & Dulin, p. 279.
- ^ Bercuson & Herwig, p. 33.
- ^ a b c d Sturton, p. 44.
- ^ Preston, p. 152.
- ^ Garzke & Dulin, p. 297.
- ^ Garzke & Dulin, p. 280.
- ^ a b Garzke & Dulin, p. 282.
- ^ a b c d Koop & Schmolke, p. 24.
- ^ a b Koop & Schmolke, p. 22.
- ^ Breyer 1973, p. 300.
- ^ Koop & Schmolke, p. 23.
- ^ Williamson, pp. 21–22.
- ^ Williamson, p. 35.
- ^ Williamson, pp. 35–36.
- ^ Williamson, p. 22.
- ^ Bercuson & Herwig, p. 63.
- ^ Bercuson & Herwig, pp. 65–67.
- ^ Bercuson & Herwig, p. 71.
- ^ Williamson, p. 23.
- ^ Williamson, pp. 23–24.
- ^ Bercuson & Herwig, pp. 147–153.
- ^ Williamson, p. 24.
- ^ Garzke & Dulin, p. 227.
- ^ Garzke & Dulin, p. 229.
- ^ a b c Williamson, p. 33.
- ^ Bercuson & Herwig, pp. 176–177.
- ^ Garzke & Dulin, pp. 229–230.
- ^ Garzke & Dulin, p. 233.
- ^ Bercuson & Herwig, p. 266.
- ^ Bercuson & Herwig, p. 288.
- ^ Bercuson & Herwig, pp. 289–290.
- ^ Bercuson & Herwig, p. 291.
- ^ Garzke & Dulin, pp. 245–246.
- ^ Williamson, pp. 34–35.
- ^ Garzke & Dulin, p. 246.
- ^ a b c d Williamson, p. 36.
- ^ a b c d Koop & Schmolke, p. 61.
- ^ a b c d Breyer 1989, p. 25.
- ^ Garzke & Dulin, p. 248.
- ^ Garzke & Dulin, p. 253.
- ^ Garzke & Dulin, p. 255.
- ^ Garzke & Dulin, p. 256.
- ^ a b Williamson, p. 37.
- ^ a b Koop & Schmolke, p. 63.
- ^ Garzke & Dulin, p. 258.
- ^ Williamson, pp. 37–38.
- ^ a b c Breyer 1989, p. 26.
- ^ Williamson, p. 39.
- ^ Sturton, p. 45.
References
- Ballard, Robert (2007). Robert Ballard's Bismarck. Edison: Chartwell Books. ISBN 978-0-7858-2205-9.
- Bercuson, David J. & Herwig, Holger H. (2003). The Destruction of the Bismarck. New York: The Overlook Press. ISBN 978-1-58567-397-1.
- Breyer, Siegfried (1973). Battleships and Battle Cruisers 1905–1970. New York: Doubleday.
- Breyer, Siegfried (1989). Battleship "Tirpitz". West Chester: Schiffer Publishing Ltd. ISBN 978-0-88740-184-8.
- Campbell, John (1985). Naval Weapons of World War Two. Naval Institute Press. ISBN 0-87021-459-4.
- Garzke, William H. & Dulin, Robert O. (1985). Battleships: Axis and Neutral Battleships in World War II. Annapolis: Naval Institute Press. ISBN 978-0-87021-101-0.
- ISBN 978-0-87021-790-6.
- Koop, Gerhard & Schmolke, Klaus-Peter (2014). Battleships Of The Bismarck Class. UK: Seaforth Publishing. ISBN 978-1-84832-197-7.
- Maiolo, Joseph (1998). The Royal Navy and Nazi Germany, 1933–39 A Study in Appeasement and the Origins of the Second World War. London: Macmillan Press. ISBN 978-0-312-21456-2.
- Müllenheim-Rechberg, Burkhard von (1980). Battleship Bismarck, A Survivor's Story. Annapolis: Naval Institute Press. ISBN 978-0-87021-096-9.
- Mulligan, Timothy P. (October 2005). "Ship-of-the-Line or Atlantic Raider? Battleship "Bismarck" between Design Limitations and Naval Strategy". S2CID 159780706.
- Preston, Antony (2002). The World's Worst Warships. London: Conway Maritime Press. ISBN 978-0-85177-754-2.
- Sturton, Ian, ed. (1987). Conway's All the World's Battleships: 1906 to the Present. London: Conway Maritime Press. OCLC 246548578.
- Williamson, Gordon (2003). German Battleships 1939–45. Oxford: Osprey Publishing. ISBN 978-1-84176-498-6.
- Whitley, M. J. (1998). Battleships of World War II. Annapolis: Naval Institute Press. ISBN 978-1-55750-184-4.