Black Arrow
Function | Carrier rocket |
---|---|
Manufacturer | |
Country of origin | United Kingdom |
Size | |
Height | 13 metres (43 ft)[1] |
Diameter | 2 metres (6 ft 7 in)[2] |
Mass | 18,130 kilograms (39,970 lb)[1] |
Stages | 3 |
Capacity | |
Payload to LEO[altitude and inclination needed] | |
Altitude | 220 km (140 mi) |
Mass | 135 kilograms (298 lb)[2] |
Payload to LEO[altitude and inclination needed] | |
Altitude | 500 km (310 mi) |
Mass | 102 kilograms (225 lb)[2] |
Launch history | |
Status | Retired |
Launch sites | solid |
Maximum thrust | 27.3 kilonewtons (6,100 lbf) |
Specific impulse | 278 seconds (2.73 km/s) |
Burn time | 55 seconds |
Propellant | Solid |
Black Arrow, officially capitalised BLACK ARROW,[3] was a British satellite expendable launch system.
Black Arrow originated from studies by the Royal Aircraft Establishment for carrier rockets based on the earlier Black Knight rocket;[4] the project was authorised by the British government in late 1964. Development of Black Arrow was largely performed by the prime contractor, the British aerospace company Saunders-Roe, and later undertaken by Westland Aircraft as the result of a merger. Both the first and second stage engines were produced by Bristol Siddeley at their factory in Ansty, Warwickshire. Assembly of the first and second stages was carried out at East Cowes on the Isle of Wight. Once manufactured, each Black Arrow vehicle was transported by ship to Australia prior to being launched from the RAAF Woomera Range Complex.
Black Arrow was a three-stage rocket, fuelled by
A total of four launches of Black Arrow were performed between 1969 and 1971, the first two being demonstration flights to prove the launcher's capabilities. While the first and third flights were failures, the second and fourth flights were successful. Black Arrow's final flight placed the
Development
Black Arrow originated from a Royal Aircraft Establishment proposal for a rocket capable of placing a 317-pound (144 kg) payload into
Initial development was conducted by the British aerospace manufacturer
The majority of the technology and systems used on Black Arrow had already been developed or flight-proven on the
The name Black Arrow came from the
Vehicle
Black Arrow was a relatively compact launch vehicle, being particularly slender as well as possibly being the shortest rocket to ever place a satellite into orbit.[24] The first and second stages of the Black Arrow were fuelled by RP-1 paraffin (kerosene), burnt using high test peroxide as an oxidiser.[5][25] Due to the optimum mixture ratio being about 7, a larger oxidiser tank was required compared to many contemporary launch systems.[26] The oxidiser tanks were located below the fuel tanks, following the practice of putting the more dense propellant at the top in order move the centre of gravity higher and make the rocket more stable, when in flight,[27] and thus easier to control.[4] This arrangement had been pioneered by Germany and the United States, whereas the Soviet Union had placed oxidiser tanks above fuel tanks, making it easier for the lower tank to be filled first.[28]
The first stage was powered by a single
The first and second stages were connected by an
About 257 seconds into the flight, the second stage cut off, and the rocket entered a coast phase to
Just over a minute after the third stage had burned out, the payload was released, and gas generators were used to push the spacecraft and spent upper stage apart.[2] The delay between burnout and separation was intended to reduce the risk of recontact between the upper stage and payload due to residual thrust. Despite this, following spacecraft separation on the R3 launch, the upper stage collided with the Prospero satellite,[2] damaging one of the spacecraft's communications antennae.[34] Despite this, the spacecraft was still able to successfully complete its mission.[34] On the R3 launch, the ascent took 710 seconds (11.8 min) from liftoff to spacecraft separation.[2]
Although none were ever built, several derivatives of Black Arrow were also proposed, typically focused upon increasing its payload capacity.
Launches
Four Black Arrows were launched between 1969 and 1971.[39] The first two launches were demonstration flights, with battleship third stages and a boilerplate payload. On the maiden flight, an electrical fault caused a pair of first stage combustion chambers to pivot back and forth.[40] Before it cleared the launch pad, the rocket was rolling erratically, and about a minute later it began to disintegrate. After the first stage engine failed, and the rocket began to fall back to earth, it was destroyed by range safety.[41][42] This initial failure was a considerable blow to the programme, particularly as there were insufficient financial reserves to accommodate a second unsuccessful launch. The second Black Arrow vehicle was returned to Britain for inspection and fixes ahead of the next launch.[43]
The second launch, performed on 4 March 1970, was entirely successful.
The fourth launch, performed on 28 October 1971, successfully orbited the
All four launches were conducted from Launch Area 5B at the RAAF Woomera Range Complex in Australia, which had previously been used as a test site for the Black Knight rocket.[47] During the development programme, launch sites in Barbados, Uist and Norfolk were also considered. The launch sites at Uist and Norfolk were rejected because the former was too remote, while there was a risk that a rocket launched from the latter might drop spent stages on an oil rig in the North Sea.[24][48]
Serial number | Launch date/time (GMT) | Payload | Outcome | Remarks |
---|---|---|---|---|
R0 | 28 June 1969, 22:58[1] | None | Failure | Suborbital test of first and second stages, thrust vectoring failed[41] |
R1 | 4 March 1970, 21:15[1] | None | Success | Suborbital test of first and second stages |
R2 | 2 September 1970, 00:34[1] | Orba[1]
|
Failure | Second stage failed to pressurise |
R3 | 28 October 1971, 04:09[49] | Prospero[49]
|
Success | Successfully reached Earth orbit |
R4 | Not launched | Preserved at the |
Cancellation
The Minister of State for Trade and Industry, Frederick Corfield, announced the cancellation of the Black Arrow project in the House of Commons on 29 July 1971.[50][45] Britain would instead focus its space activities on building satellites and rely on foreign launch vehicles instead.[51] As the R3 rocket had already been shipped to the launch site, the second stage having arrived three days earlier, permission was given for it to be launched.[2]
The programme was cancelled on economic grounds, as the Ministry of Defence decided that it would be cheaper to use the American Scout rocket, which had a similar payload capacity, for future launches.[6][52][53] Prior to the cancellation of Black Arrow, NASA had offered to launch British payloads for free; however, this offer was withdrawn following the decision to cancel Black Arrow.[2]
The final Black Arrow to be completed was R4, which did not fly, and is preserved in the Science Museum, London, along with the flight spare for the Prospero satellite.
The launch facilities at Woomera were demolished within a year of the final flight,
As of 2022, the United Kingdom is the only country to have successfully developed and then abandoned a satellite launch capability.[60] All other countries that have developed such a capability have retained it either through their own space programme or, in the case of France, through its involvement in the Ariane programme.[60]
See also
- Comparison of orbital launchers families
- Comparison of orbital launch systems
- Ariel 1
- British National Space Centre
- Diamant
- Juno I
- Lambda (rocket family)
- Satellite Launch Vehicle
- Sputnik (rocket)
- Black Knight
References
Citations
- ^ a b c d e f g h Wade, Mark. "Black Arrow". Encyclopedia Astronautica. Archived from the original on 6 December 2007. Retrieved 9 March 2009.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s Hill 2006, [page needed].
- ^ a b Gibson and Buttler 2007, [page needed].
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p Millard 2001, [page needed].
- ^ a b c "British Space Race". Timeshift. BBC. BBC Four.
- ^ a b Hill, C. N. "Black Arrow Cancellation". Space UK. Archived from the original on 7 June 2009. Retrieved 29 March 2009.
{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link) - ^ Hill 2006, p. 188.
- ^ Hill 2006, p. 227.
- ^ "Session 4". Black Arrow: British Rocket Science and the Cold War. Science Museum. Archived from the original on 25 October 2007. Retrieved 9 March 2009.
- ^ "Session 5". Black Arrow: British Rocket Science and the Cold War. Science Museum. Archived from the original on 7 June 2007. Retrieved 9 March 2009.
- ^ a b Harvey 2003, p. 84.
- ^ Hill 2006, pp. 22, 193.
- ^ "VIDEO Isle of Wight marks 50 years since historic space race rocket programme". Isle of Wight County Press. Retrieved 21 February 2022.
- ^ Hill 2006, pp. 29-30.
- ^ Rees, Bill. "High Down, Isle of Wight". Hengistbury Head: An Introduction. Archived from the original on 24 July 2009. Retrieved 9 March 2009.
- ^ Harvey 2003, p. 20.
- ^ Harvey 2003, p. 37.
- ^ The One Show. 5 August 2009. 17 minutes in. BBC One.
- ^ Hill 2006, p. 213.
- ^ Hill 2006, p. 52.
- ^ Hill 2006, p. 16.
- ^ Hill 2006, pp. 16, 197.
- ^ Shillito, Paul (8 October 2017). "Black Arrow : The Lipstick Rocket – A Very British Space Program". Curious Droid. Retrieved 14 June 2023.
- ^ a b c Harvey 2003, p. 86.
- ^ Harvey 2003, pp. 84-86.
- ^ Wade, Mark. "H2O2/Kerosene". Encyclopedia Astronautica. Archived from the original on 22 October 2009. Retrieved 29 July 2009.
- ^ "Rocket Stability". www.grc.nasa.gov.
- ^ Wade, Mark. "Soyuz". Encyclopedia Astronautica. Archived from the original on 7 January 2010. Retrieved 29 July 2009.
- ^ Hill 2006, p. 38.
- ^ a b Hill 2006, p. 131.
- ^ Hill, C. N. "BA Sectional". Space UK. Archived from the original on 2 January 2008. Retrieved 8 March 2009.
{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link) - ^ Hill, C. N. "Solid Fuel Motors". Space UK. Archived from the original on 18 January 2005. Retrieved 29 July 2009.
{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link) - ^ "Gamma 2 Engine". Royal Aircraft Establishment Black Arrow Cutaway. Airspace. Archived from the original on 31 January 2009. Retrieved 4 March 2009.
- ^ Bibcode:1975JBIS...28..263P.
- ^ Hill 2006, p. 189.
- ^ Hill 2006, pp. 127, 202.
- ^ Hill 2006, pp. 131-132, 232.
- ^ Harvey 2003, p. 38.
- ^ Harvey 2003, pp. 86-89.
- ^ Harland and Lorenz 2006, pp. 97-98.
- ^ a b c Stracy, Mathew; Myerscough, Joe. Once We Had A Rocket (Documentary). Space.co.uk. Archived from the original (flv) on 14 February 2009. Retrieved 9 March 2009.
- ^ Harvey 2003, pp. 86-87.
- ^ a b Harvey 2003, p. 87.
- ^ Hill, C. N. "Black Arrow". SpaceUK. Archived from the original on 25 December 2007. Retrieved 9 March 2009.
{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link) - ^ a b Harvey 2003, p. 88.
- ^ O'Brien, Stephen. "Black Arrow". Britain in Space. Archived from the original on 29 August 2009. Retrieved 9 March 2009.
- ^ Hill 2006, p. 13.
- ^ Hill, C. N. "North Sea". Black Arrow. SpaceUK. Archived from the original on 23 December 2007. Retrieved 9 March 2009.
{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link) - ^ a b Crowe, C. T. (5 November 1971). "Information Furnished in Conformity with General Assembly Resolution 1721 B (XVI) by States Launching Objects into Orbit or Beyond". Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space. United Nations. Archived from the original (pdf) on 28 September 2011. Retrieved 14 March 2009.
- ^ Hill 2006, p. 14.
- ^ Harvey 2003, pp. 90-91.
- ^ Harvey 2003, p. 90.
- ^ Hill 2006, p. 340.
- ^ "Black Arrow R4 launch vehicle, 1971". Science Museum. Retrieved 5 May 2020.
- ^ Harvey 2003, p. 89.
- ^ O'Brien, Stephen. "Image Archive". Britain in Space. Archived from the original on 12 August 2005. Retrieved 9 March 2009.
- ^ "Black Arrow: UK space rocket returns home from Australia". BBC News. 21 January 2019. Retrieved 21 January 2019.
- ^ "The History of the UK's Black Arrow Rocket Programme". Skyrora. 26 May 2021. Retrieved 19 July 2021.
- ^ Wade, Mark. "Scout". Encyclopedia Astronautica. Archived from the original on 27 April 2009. Retrieved 9 March 2008.
- ^ a b Wheeler, Brian (12 January 2004). "Britain's first space pioneers". Magazine. BBC News Online. Archived from the original on 12 October 2007. Retrieved 9 March 2009.
Bibliography
- Gibson, Chris; Buttler, Tony (2007). British Secret Projects: Hypersonics, Ramjets & Missiles (2007 ed.). England: Midland Publishing. ISBN 9 78-1-85780-258-0.
- Harland, David M.; Lorenz, Ralph D. (2005). Mason, John; Whyte, Alex (eds.). Space Systems Failures (2006 ed.). Berlin, Germany: Springer-Praxis. pp. 97–98. ISBN 0-387-21519-0.
- Harvey, Brian (2003). Europe's Space Programme: To Ariane and Beyond. Springer. ISBN 1-85233-722-2.
- Hill, C. N. (2001). "Black Arrow". A Vertical Empire: The History of the UK Rocket and Space Programme, 1950–1971 (2006 ed.). London: Imperial College Press. pp. 155–188. ISBN 1-86094-268-7.
- Millard, Douglas (2001). The Black Arrow Rocket: A History of a Satellite Launch Vehicle and its Engines. London: Science Museum. ISBN 1-900747-41-3.
External links
- Listen Ray Wheeler, Chief Design Engineer, discussing Black Arrow - part of a life story interview recorded for An Oral History of British Science at the British Library
- BBC Radio 4 – "The Archive Hour – Britain's Space Race". 11 August 2007.