Blue
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Blue is one of the three
Blue has been an important colour in art and decoration since ancient times. The semi-precious stone
In the United States and Europe, blue is the colour that both men and women are most likely to choose as their favourite, with at least one recent survey showing the same across several other countries, including China, Malaysia, and Indonesia.[5][6] Past surveys in the US and Europe have found that blue is the colour most commonly associated with harmony, confidence, masculinity, knowledge, intelligence, calm, distance, infinity, the imagination, cold, and sadness.[7]
Etymology and linguistics
The modern English word blue comes from Middle English bleu or blewe, from the Old French bleu, a word of Germanic origin, related to the Old High German word blao (meaning 'shimmering, lustrous').[8] In heraldry, the word azure is used for blue.[9]
In
Several languages, including
Linguistic research indicates that languages do not begin by having a word for the colour blue.[11] Colour names often developed individually in natural languages, typically beginning with black and white (or dark and light), and then adding red, and only much later – usually as the last main category of colour accepted in a language – adding the colour blue, probably when blue pigments could be manufactured reliably in the culture using that language.[11]
Optics and colour theory
The term blue generally describes colours perceived by humans observing light with a dominant wavelength between approximately 450 and 495 nanometres.[12] Blues with a higher frequency and thus a shorter wavelength gradually look more violet, while those with a lower frequency and a longer wavelength gradually appear more green. Purer blues are in the middle of this range, e.g., around 470 nanometres.
Isaac Newton included blue as one of the seven colours in his first description of the visible spectrum.[13] He chose seven colours because that was the number of notes in the musical scale, which he believed was related to the optical spectrum. He included indigo, the hue between blue and violet, as one of the separate colours, though today it is usually considered a hue of blue.[14]
In painting and traditional
The RYB model was used for
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Additive colour mixing. The combination ofprimary coloursproduces secondary colours where two overlap; the combination red, green, and blue each in full intensity makes white.
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Red, green, and blueLCD display.
On the
LED
In 1993, high-brightness blue LEDs were demonstrated by
Nakamura was awarded the 2006 Millennium Technology Prize for his invention.[21] Nakamura, Hiroshi Amano and Isamu Akasaki were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 2014 for the invention of an efficient blue LED.[22]
Lasers
Shades and variations
Blue is the colour of light between violet and cyan on the visible spectrum. Hues of blue include indigo and ultramarine, closer to violet; pure blue, without any mixture of other colours; Azure, which is a lighter shade of blue, similar to the colour of the sky; Cyan, which is midway in the spectrum between blue and green, and the other blue-greens such as turquoise, teal, and aquamarine.
Blue also varies in shade or tint; darker shades of blue contain black or grey, while lighter tints contain white. Darker shades of blue include ultramarine,
As a structural colour
In nature, many blue phenomena arise from
Colourants
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YInMn blue
Artificial blues
In 1799 a French chemist, Louis Jacques Thénard, made a synthetic cobalt blue pigment which became immensely popular with painters.
In 1824 the
In 1878 German chemists synthesized indigo. This product rapidly replaced natural indigo, wiping out vast farms growing indigo. It is now the blue of blue jeans. As the pace of organic chemistry accelerated, a succession of synthetic blue dyes were discovered including Indanthrone blue, which had even greater resistance to fading during washing or in the sun, and copper phthalocyanine.
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The Blue Boy (1770), featuring lapis lazuli, indigo, and cobalt colourants,[29]
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The Great Wave off Kanagawa illustrates the use of Prussian blue
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A synthetic indigo dye factory in Germany in 1890.
Dyes for textiles and food
Blue dyes are organic compounds, both synthetic and natural.
For food, the triarylmethane dye Brilliant blue FCF is used for candies. The search continues for stable, natural blue dyes suitable for the food industry.[30]
Pigments for painting and glass
Blue pigments were once produced from minerals, especially lapis lazuli and its close relative ultramarine. These minerals were crushed, ground into powder, and then mixed with a quick-drying binding agent, such as egg yolk (tempera painting); or with a slow-drying oil, such as linseed oil, for oil painting. Two inorganic but synthetic blue pigments are cerulean blue (primarily cobalt(II) stanate: Co2SnO4) and Prussian blue (milori blue: primarily Fe7(CN)18). The chromophore in blue glass and glazes is cobalt(II). Diverse cobalt(II) salts such as cobalt carbonate or cobalt(II) aluminate are mixed with the silica prior to firing. The cobalt occupies sites otherwise filled with silicon.
Inks
Methyl blue is the dominant blue pigment in inks used in pens.[31] Blueprinting involves the production of Prussian blue in situ.
Inorganic compounds
Certain metal
In nature
Sky and sea
When sunlight passes through the atmosphere, the blue wavelengths are scattered more widely by the oxygen and nitrogen molecules, and more blue comes to our eyes. This effect is called
The sea is seen as blue for largely the same reason: the water absorbs the longer wavelengths of red and reflects and scatters the blue, which comes to the eye of the viewer. The deeper the observer goes, the darker the blue becomes. In the open sea, only about one per cent of light penetrates to a depth of 200 metres. (See
The colour of the sea is also affected by the colour of the sky, reflected by particles in the water; and by algae and plant life in the water, which can make it look green; or by sediment, which can make it look brown.[34]
The farther away an object is, the more blue it often appears to the eye. For example, mountains in the distance often appear blue. This is the effect of
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Earth's blue halo when seen from space.
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Another example of Rayleigh scattering.
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The sea.
Minerals
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Lapis-lazuli
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Natural ultramarine pigment
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Logan sapphire
Some of the most desirable gems are blue, including sapphire and tanzanite. Compounds of copper(II) are characteristically blue and so are many copper-containing minerals.
Plants and fungi
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Primula acaulis
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Morning glory (Ipomoea acuminata)
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Blue Delphinium flower
Intense efforts have focused on blue flowers and the possibility that natural blue colourants could be used as food dyes.[30] Commonly, blue colours in plants are anthocyanins: "the largest group of water-soluble pigments found widespread in the plant kingdom."[37] In the few plants that exploit structural colouration, brilliant colours are produced by structures within cells. The most brilliant blue colouration known in any living tissue is found in the marble berries of Pollia condensata, where a spiral structure of cellulose fibrils scattering blue light. The fruit of quandong (Santalum acuminatum) can appear blue owing to the same effect.[30]
Animals
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Morpho butterfly
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Indigo buntings have iridescent feathers.
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Blue facial ridges of mandrill
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The mandarin fish is one of few animal species with blue pigment
Blue-pigmented animals are relatively rare.
Eyes
Blue eyes do not actually contain any blue pigment.
Blue eyes are most common in Ireland, the Baltic Sea area and Northern Europe,[51] and are also found in Eastern, Central, and Southern Europe. Blue eyes are also found in parts of Western Asia, most notably in Afghanistan, Syria, Iraq, and Iran.[52] In Estonia, 99% of people have blue eyes.[53][54] In Denmark in 1978, only 8% of the population had brown eyes, though through immigration, today that number is about 11%.[54] In Germany, about 75% have blue eyes.[54]
In the United States, as of 2006, one out of every six people, or 16.6% of the total population, and 22.3% of the white population, have blue eyes, compared with about half of Americans born in 1900, and a third of Americans born in 1950. Blue eyes are becoming less common among American children[citation needed]. In the US, boys are 3–5 per cent more likely to have blue eyes than girls.[51]
History
In the ancient world
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Lapis lazuli bowl from Iran, end of 3rd – beginning of 2nd millennium BC (Louvre Museum)
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Egyptian blue tripodic beaker imitating lapis lazuli. South Mesopotamia. (1399-1200 BC)
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Fresco of Polyphemus and Galatea, Pompei, using Egyptian blue (1st c. BC) (Metropolitan Museum)
As early as the 7th millennium BC, lapis lazuli was mined in the Sar-i Sang mines,[55] in Shortugai, and in other mines in Badakhshan province in northeast Afghanistan.[56]
Lapis lazuli artifacts, dated to 7570 BC, have been found at
A term for Blue was relatively rare in many forms of ancient art and decoration, and even in ancient literature. The Ancient Greek poets described the sea as green, brown or "the colour of wine". The colour is mentioned several times in the Hebrew Bible as 'tekhelet'. Reds, blacks, browns, and ochres are found in cave paintings from the Upper Paleolithic period, but not blue. Blue was also not used for dyeing fabric until long after red, ochre, pink, and purple. This is probably due to the perennial difficulty of making blue dyes and pigments. On the other hand, the rarity of blue pigment made it even more valuable.[62]
The earliest known blue dyes were made from plants –
Blue was widely used in the decoration of churches in the Byzantine Empire.[68] By contrast, in the Islamic world, blue was of secondary to green, believed to be the favourite colour of the Prophet Mohammed. At certain times in Moorish Spain and other parts of the Islamic world, blue was the colour worn by Christians and Jews, because only Muslims were allowed to wear white and green.[69]
In the Middle Ages
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Stained glass window atSaint Denis Basilica (1130-1140), coloured with cobalt blue
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Detail of the Blue Virgin Window, Chartres Cathedral (12th c.)
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TheVirgin Marywas traditionally shown in blue(14th c.)
In the art and life of Europe during the early
In the 12th century the Roman Catholic Church dictated that painters in Italy (and the rest of Europe consequently) to paint the Virgin Mary with blue, which became associated with holiness, humility and virtue. In medieval paintings, blue was used to attract the attention of the viewer to the Virgin Mary. Paintings of the mythical King Arthur began to show him dressed in blue. The coat of arms of the kings of France became an azure or light blue shield, sprinkled with golden fleur-de-lis or lilies. Blue had come from obscurity to become the royal colour.[72]
Renaissance through 18th century
Blue came into wider use beginning in the Renaissance, when artists began to paint the world with perspective, depth, shadows, and light from a single source. In Renaissance paintings, artists tried to create harmonies between blue and red, lightening the blue with lead white paint and adding shadows and highlights. Raphael was a master of this technique, carefully balancing the reds and the blues so no one colour dominated the picture.[73]
Ultramarine was the most prestigious blue of the Renaissance, being more expensive than gold. Wealthy art patrons commissioned works with the most expensive blues possible. In 1616 Richard Sackville commissioned a portrait of himself by Isaac Oliver with three different blues, including ultramarine pigment for his stockings.[74]
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Portrait of Richard Sackville (1616), using three expensive blues, including ultramarine for his stockings
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Ming Dynasty, Porcelain vase painted with cobalt blue under transparent glaze. (15th c.) (Metropolitan Museum)
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Delftware plaque with cobalt blue painting (1683) (Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam)
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Portrait of KingLouis XIV of France in coronation robes, by Hyacinthe Rigaud(c. 1700) (Louvre Museum)
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Urn byJosiah Wedgewood(1780s) (Metropolitan Museum)
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Queen Maria I of Portugal (late 1700s)
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"Girl with a Pearl Earring" by Johannes Vermeer features ultramarine pigment
An industry for the manufacture of fine blue and white pottery began in the 14th century in Jingdezhen, China, using white Chinese porcelain decorated with patterns of cobalt blue, imported from Persia. It was first made for the family of the Emperor of China, then was exported around the world, with designs for export adapted to European subjects and tastes. The Chinese blue style was also adapted by Dutch craftsmen in Delft and English craftsmen in Staffordshire in the 17th-18th centuries. in the 18th century, blue and white porcelains were produced by Josiah Wedgwood and other British craftsmen.[75]
19th-20th century
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Beau Brummel(1776-1840) introduced the ancestor of the modern blue suit
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Queen Maria II of Portugal in a blue and gold embroidered gown (1835)
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A California gold miner in blue jeans (1853)
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Isabel, Princess Imperial of Brazil in light blue gown (1853)
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New York City police in 1871
The early 19th century saw the ancestor of the modern blue business suit, created by
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Van Gogh's Starry Night Over the Rhône (1888). Blue used to create a mood or atmosphere. A cobalt blue sky, and cobalt or ultramarine water.
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"The Conversation" by Henri Matisse (1908-1912)
Recognizing the emotional power of blue, many artists made it the central element of paintings in the 19th and 20th centuries. They included
In society and culture
Uniforms
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Officers of the London Metropolitan Police
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Sailors of the Royal Navy
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Ukrainian police officer in Donetsk
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Officers of the Military Police of Rio de Janeiro State, Brazil
In the 17th century. The Prince-Elector of Brandenburg,
In 1748, the
In the 19th century, police in the United Kingdom, including the Metropolitan Police and the City of London Police also adopted a navy blue uniform. Similar traditions were embraced in France and Austria.[83] It was also adopted at about the same time for the uniforms of the officers of the New York City Police Department.[76]
Religion
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Blue domes of the Church dedicated to St. Spirou in Firostefani, Santorini island (Thira), Greece.
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Persian blue inShah mosque (16th c.) in Isfahan, Iran
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The flag of Israel uses a special variety of blue, called tekhelet
- menorah, many of the vessels, and the Ark of the Covenant, were covered with blue cloth when transported from place to place.[89]
- Blue in Virgin Mary. This was the result of a decree of Pope Gregory I (540-601) who ordered that all religious paintings should tell a story which was clearly comprehensible to all viewers, and that figures should be easily recognizable, especially that of the figure of Mary. If she was alone in the image, her costume was usually painted with the finest blue, ultramarine. If she was with Christ, her costume was usually painted with a less expensive pigment, to avoid outshining him.[90][91][92][93]
- Blue in Hinduism: Many of the gods are depicted as having blue-coloured skin, particularly those associated with Vishnu, who is said to be the preserver of the world, and thus intimately connected to water. Krishna and Rama, Vishnu's avatars, are usually depicted with blue skin. Shiva, the destroyer deity, is also depicted in a light-blue hue, and is called neela kantha, or blue-throated, for having swallowed poison to save the universe during the Samudra Manthana, the churning of the ocean of milk. Blue is used to symbolically represent the fifth, and the throat, chakra (Vishuddha).[94]
- Blue in Sikhism: The Akali Nihangs warriors wear all-blue attire. Guru Gobind Singh also has a blue roan horse. The Sikh Rehat Maryada states that the Nishan Sahib hoisted outside every Gurudwara should be xanthic (Basanti in Punjabi) or greyish blue (modern day navy blue) (Surmaaee in Punjabi) colour.[95][96]
- Blue in Paganism: Blue is associated with peace, truth, wisdom, protection, and patience. It helps with healing, psychic ability, harmony, and understanding.[97]
Sports
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Serbian national volleyball team, 2012 Olympics
In sports, blue is widely represented in uniforms in part because the majority of national teams wear the colours of their national flag. For example, the national men's football team of
Politics
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Flag of the United Nations, approximates "sky blue"
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Flag of the European Union is "reflex blue", a medium dark blue
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A presidential-election map of the US, 2008–2020. States that consistently vote for Democrats are termed "blue states".
Unlike red or green, blue was not strongly associated with any particular country, religion or political movement. As the colour of harmony, it was chosen as the colour for the flags of the United Nations, the European Union, and NATO.[100] In politics, blue is often used as the colour of conservative parties, contrasting with the red associated with left-wing parties.[101] Some conservative parties that use the colour blue include the Conservative Party (UK),[102] Conservative Party of Canada,[103] Liberal Party of Australia,[104] Liberal Party of Brazil, and Likud of Israel. In some countries, however, like the United States, the colours are reversed. To avoid associations of the Democrats with socialism or the far left, U.S. states which voted Democratic in four consecutive presidential elections are termed "blue states", while those which voted for Republicans are termed "red states".[105] States which voted for different parties in two of the last four presidential elections are called "swing states", and are usually coloured purple, a mix of red and blue, or sometimes pink or light blue.[106]South Korea also uses this colour model, with the Democratic Party on the left using blue[107] and the People Power Party on the right using red.
See also
- Engineer's blue
- Lists of colours
- Non-photo blue
- Blue pigments
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Near sunrise and sunset, most of the light we see comes in nearly tangent to the Earth's surface, so that the light's path through the atmosphere is so long that much of the blue and even green light is scattered out, leaving the sun rays and the clouds it illuminates red. Therefore, when looking at the sunset and sunrise, the colour red is more perceptible than any of the other colours.
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Works cited
- Ball, Philip (2001). Bright Earth, Art, and the Invention of Colour. London: Penguin Group. p. 507. ISBN 978-2-7541-0503-3. (page numbers refer to the French translation)
- Bowersox, Gary W.; Chamberlin, Bonita E. (1995). Gemstones of Afghanistan. Tucson, AZ: Geoscience Press.
- Heller, Eva (2009). Psychologie de la couleur: effets et symboliques (in French). Munich: Pyramyd. ISBN 978-2-35017-156-2.
- Pastoureau, Michel (2000). Bleu: Histoire d'une couleur (in French). Paris: Editions du Seuil. ISBN 978-2-02-086991-1.
- Riley, Charles A. II (1995). Color Codes: Modern Theories of Color in Philosophy, Painting and Architecture, Literature, Music, and Psychology. Hanover, New Hampshire: University Press of New England.
- Travis, Tim (2020). The Victoria and Albert Museum Book of Colour in Design. Thames & Hudson. ISBN 978-0-500-48027-4.
- Varichon, Anne (2005). Couleurs : pigments et teintures dans les mains des peuples (in French). Paris: Editions du Seuil. ISBN 978-2-02-084697-4.
- Lours, Mathieu (2020). Le Vitrai. Éditions Jean-Paul Gisserot. ISBN 978-2-755-80845-2.
Further reading
- Balfour-Paul, Jenny (1998). Indigo. London: British Museum Press. ISBN 978-0-7141-1776-8.
- Josserand, M.; Meeussen, E.; Majid, A. (27 September 2021). "Environment and culture shape both the colour lexicon and the genetics of colour perception". Sci Rep. 11 (19095). Nature: 19095. S2CID 238202924.
- Macdonald, Fiona (7 April 2018). "There's Evidence Humans Didn't Actually See Blue Until Modern Times". Science Alert. Retrieved 24 June 2022.
- Mollo, John (1991). Uniforms of The American Revolution in Color. Illustrated by ISBN 978-0-8069-8240-3.
External links
- The dictionary definition of blue at Wiktionary
- Media related to blue at Wikimedia Commons
- "Friday essay: from the Great Wave to Starry Night, how a blue pigment changed the world", By Hugh Davies, theconversation.com