Blue Army (Poland)
Blue Army Haller's Army | |
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Błękitna Armia Armée bleue | |
Józef Haller von Hallenburg | |
General | Louis Archinard |
The Blue Army (
The army was formed on 4 June 1917, and was made up of Polish volunteers serving alongside allied forces in France during World War I. After fighting on the Western Front, the army was transferred to Poland where it joined other Polish military formations fighting for the return of Poland's independence. The Blue Army played a pivotal role in ensuring Polish victory in the Polish–Ukrainian War, and later Haller's troops took part in Poland's defeat of the advancing Bolshevik forces in the Polish–Soviet War.
History
Background
Canadian origins
Beginning in 1914, the Polish community in North America began to organize in hopes of setting up a military organization with an end-goal of an independent Poland. In late 1914 a delegation was sent by the Polish-American group PCKR (Polski Centralny Komitet Ratunkowy / Polish Central Relief Committee) to
America enters the war
The emergence of the Blue Army was closely associated with the
The Blue Army was formally merged into the Polish Army after
World War I
Western Front
The first divisions were formed after the official signing of a 1917 alliance by French President
The Blue Army was initially placed under direct French military control and commanded by General
Transfer to Poland
The army continued to gather recruits after the end of World War I. Many of these new volunteers were ethnic Poles who were conscripted into the German, Austrian and Russian armies, and later discharged following the signing of the
Between April and June of that year, all the army units were moved to a
Captain Stanisław I. Nastal: Preparations for the departure lasted for some time. The question of transit became a difficult and complicated problem. Finally after a long wait a decision was made and officially agreed upon between the Allies and Germany. The first transports with the Blue Army set out in the first half of April, 1919. Train after train tore along though Germany to the homeland, to Poland.[10]
Major Stefan Wyczółkowski: On 15 April 1919 the regiment began its trip to Poland from the Bayon railroad station in four transports, via Mainz, Erfurt, Leipzig, Kalisz, and Warsaw, and arrived in Poland, where it was quartered in individual battalions; in Chełm 1st Battalion, supernumerary company and command of the regiment; 3rd Battalion in Kowel; and the 2nd Battalion in Wlodzimierz.[11]
Major Stanisław Bobrowski: On 13 April 1919 the regiment set out across Germany for Poland, to reinforce other units of the Polish army being created in the homeland amid battle, shielding with their youthful breasts the resurrected Poland.[12]
Major Jerzy Dąbrowski: Finally on 18 April 1919 the regiment's first transport set out for Poland. On 23 April 1919 the leading divisions of the 3rd Regiment of Polish Riflemen set foot on Polish soil, now free thanks to their own efforts.[13]
Lt. Wincenty Skarzyński: Weeks passed. April 1919 arrived – then plans were changed: it was decided irrevocably to transport our army to Gdańsk instead by trains, through Germany. Many officers came from Poland, among them Major Gorecki, to coordinate technical details with General Haller.[14]
Polish–Ukrainian War
Haller's troops changed the balance of power in
Polish–Bolshevik War
During the
Post-war
The Blue Army's 15th Infantry Rifle Regiment formed a basis for the 49th Hutsul Rifle Regiment (part of the 11th Carpathian Infantry Division) after the end of World War I.
During the
Anti-Jewish violence
Throughout the fighting on the Ukrainian front, soldiers from the Blue Army assaulted local Jews, believing that some of them were cooperating with Poland's enemies.[18][19][20] In eastern Galicia this included fighting a Jewish battalion of the Ukrainian Galician Army under the leadership of Solomon Leinberg.[21][22]
On 27 May 1919 a soldier by the name of Stanisław Dziadecki who served in one of the Blue Army's rifle divisions in Częstochowa, was shot and wounded while on patrol. A Jewish tailor was suspected of the shooting, and was promptly executed by Haller's soldiers and accompanying civilians, who proceeded to loot Jewish homes and businesses, killing 5-10 Jews and injuring several dozen more.[23][24] Pavel Korzec wrote that as the army traveled further east, some of Haller's soldiers, as a way to exact retribution, continued to loot Jewish properties and engage in violence.[25] Willian Hagen described Haller's troops together with civilian mobs as assaulting Jewish policemen, beating worshipers and destroying Jewish prayer books in synagogues in eastern Chełm. Polish police and regular army soldiers were occasionally able to restrain Haller's troops.[26]
According to Howard Sachar, in the year and a half prior to the Blue Army's arrival, the total number of Jewish casualties in the region was between 400 and 500; Haller's troops' violence caused this number to double.[27] The Morgenthau Report estimated that the total number of Jews killed as a result of actions made by the Polish military (including the Blue Army) did not exceed 200–300.[28] As a result of the Blue Army's activities, General Haller's visit to the United States was met with protests from American Jewish and Ukrainian communities.[29][30] Tadeusz Piotrowski wrote that in most cases it's impossible to disentangle gratuitous antisemitism from commonplace looting and soldier brutality. He claims that the term "pogrom" in the accepted sense of the deliberate killing of Jewish civilians could not be applied to the great majority of the incidents in which the Blue Army was involved.[31]
Causes
According to Alexander Prusin there were a number of causes for the anti-semitic acts of the Polish forces. Socioeconomic tensions regarding land reforms and conflation of Jews with the landed class led to the feelings of hostility. Also, the lack of appropriate government compensation to the Polish soldiers led to soldiers viewing the looting of Jews as partial re-compensation for their service. For soldiers from Western Poland who remembered how many Jews have previously collaborated with Germany during a recent Polish-German conflict in 1919, this allowed framing of anti-semitic attacks as retribution on enemies of the Polish nation. Further, for many Poles Jews were associated with Bolshevism, and the Endeks in particular promoted the stereotype of Jewish Bolshevism.[32] Likewise, according to Joanna Michlic, some perpetrators of anti-Jewish violence legitimized their actions in the name of national self defense. Officers and soldiers in the Blue Army expressed these tendencies, and often treated all Jews as communists, despite the traditional religious character and political diversity of Jewish communities.[33] Some of the more significant incidents of abuse were inflicted by the Polish-American volunteers. It is likely that the cultural shock of finding themselves confronted by a multitude of unfamiliar ethnic, political and religious groups that inhabited Western Ukraine led to a feeling of vulnerability, that in turn provoked the violent outbursts. Encyclopaedia Judaica writes that because of its French ties the Blue Army enjoyed independence from the main Polish command, and some of its soldiers exploited this when engaging in undisciplined action against Jewish communities in Galicia.[34]
Personnel
Veteran status of Polish-American volunteers
After the war, the
-
Polish Veterans Association Convention Cleveland Ohio 1921
-
Polish Veterans Association Elizabeth City New Jersey 1928
-
Life Magazine
Jewish volunteers
Notable persons
- Ludwik Marian Kaźmierczak, the paternal grandfather of the German chancellor Angela Merkel,[40] and an ethnic Pole born in Posen (Poznań), German Empire served in the Blue Army. During World War I, he was drafted into the German Army in 1915 and fought on the western front. After being taken as a prisoner of war in France, he joined the Blue Army, and subsequently fought in the Polish-Ukrainian and Polish-Soviet wars. After ending his service Kaźmierczak emigrated back to Germany.[41][42]
- Stanislaw Jackowski, Commander of the II Batallon of the 1st Tank Regiment.
Order of battle
The order of battle shows the hierarchical organization of an armed force participating in a military operation or campaign. The Blue Army order of battle was as follows:
- I Polish Corps
- 1st Rifle Division
- 2nd Rifle Division
- 1st Heavy Artillery Regiment
- II Polish Corps
- 4th Rifle Division
- 5th Rifle Division
- III Polish Corps
- 3rd Rifle Division
- 6th Rifle Division
- 3rd Heavy Artillery Regiment
- Independent Units
- 7th Rifle Division
- 1st Tank Regiment
- Training Division – cadre
See also
Bibliography
Notes
- ^ a b Skrzeszewski 2014, p. 3
- ^ Skrzeszewski 2014, p. 4
- ^ Biskupski 1999, p. 339
- ^ a b Hind 2015
- ^ Ruskoski 2006
- ^ ISBN 978-0-306-48321-9. Retrieved 22 July 2017.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-674-06816-2. Retrieved 23 July 2017.
- ISBN 9780739188736.
- ^ a b c d e Reddaway, William Fiddian; Penson, J. H.; Halecki, O.; Dyboski, R., eds. (1971). The Cambridge History of Poland: From Augustus II to Pilsudski (1697–1935). Cambridge University Press Archive. p. 477. GGKEY:2G7C1LPZ3RN.
- ^ The Blue Division, Stanislaw I. Nastal, Polish Army Veteran's Association in America, Cleveland, Ohio 1922 [page needed]
- ^ Outline of the Wartime History of the 43rd regiment of the Eastern Frontier Riflemen, Major Stefan Wyczolkowski, Warsaw 1928 [page needed]
- ^ Outline of the Wartime History of the 44th Regiment of Eastern Frontier Riflemen, Major Stanislaw Bobrowski, Warsaw 1929 [page needed]
- ^ Outline of the Wartime History of the 45th Regiment of Eastern Frontier Infantry Riflemen, Major Jerzy Dabrowski, Warsaw 1928 [page needed]
- ^ The Polish Army in France in Light of the Facts, Wincenty Skarzynski, Warsaw 1929 [page needed]
- ^ Watt, R. (1979). Bitter Glory: Poland and its fate 1918–1939. New York: Simon and Schuster. [page needed]
- ISBN 978-0-8020-8390-6. Retrieved 23 July 2017.
- ^ "The Polish Army in France, Haller Army, Blue Army - Battles in France". www.hallersarmy.com.
- ^ Landau, Moshe. "Haller's Army". Encyclopedia Judaica. Archived from the original on 17 July 2011. Retrieved 5 October 2015.
Haller's army ("Blue Army"), force of Polish volunteers organized in France during the last year of World War I, responsible for the murder of Jews and anti-Jewish pogroms in Galicia and the Ukraine... Attacks on individual Jews on the streets and highways, murderous pogroms on Jewish settlements, and deliberate provocative acts became commonplace.
- ^ Heiko Haumann (2002), A History of East European Jews. Central European University Press; pg. 215, via Google Books. Notes not included.
- ^ Carole Fink (2006), Defending the Rights of Others: The Great Powers, the Jews, and International Minority Protection, 1878–1938. Cambridge University Press; pg. 227, via Google Books.
- ^ Alexander Victor Prusin (2005). Nationalizing a Borderland: War, Ethnicity, and Anti-Jewish Violence in East Galicia, 1914–1920. Tuscaloosa, AL: University of Alabama
- ^ The Ukrainian Quarterly. Ukrainian Congress Committee of America. 1987.
- ^ Carole Finke. (2006). Defending the Rights of Others The Great Powers, the Jews, and International Minority Protection, 1878–1938. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pg. 230
- ISBN 978-3-643-90287-0.
- ^ a b Strauss 1993, pp. 1034–1035 footnote 20
- ^ William W. Hagen. (2018). Anti-Jewish Violence in Poland, 1914–1920. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp.316-322
- ^ Howard M. Sachar. (2007). Dreamland: Europeans and Jews in the Aftermath of the Great War, Random House LLC: page 25.
- ^ "The Jews in Poland: official reports of the American and British Investigating Missions". Chicago : National Polish Committee of America. 8 October 2018 – via Internet Archive.
- ^ "General Haller's Visit to Boston Curtailed". Jewish Telegraphic Agency. 27 November 1923. Retrieved 22 July 2017.
- ^ "Bnai Brith of Boston Decry Reception to Haller". Jewish Telegraphic Agency. 13 November 1923. Retrieved 22 July 2017.
- ^ Tadeusz Piotrowski. (1998). Poland's Holocaust: Ethnic Strife, Collaboration with Occupying Forces and Genocide in the Second Republic, 1918–1947, McFarland: page 43.
- ISBN 0817314598. Note: the exact phrase 'Blue Army' is not being usedinside this book. It refers to it as Haller's Army
- ^ Joanna B. Michlic. (2006). Poland's threatening other: the image of the Jew from 1880 to the present . University of Nebraska Press, pg. 117
- ^ Moshe Landau (2007). Encyclopaedia Judaica. Macmillan Reference Detroit, USA. Volume 8.
- ^ Martin Conway, José Gotovitch. (2001). Europe in exile: European exile communities in Britain, 1940–1945. Berghahn Books pg. 191
- ISBN 9788391666333.
- ISBN 9788362076246.
- ^ a b Goldstein, Edward. Jews in Haller's Army. [1] The Galitzianer, the quarterly journal of Gesher Galicia, May 2002.
- ^ Heiko Haumann. (2002). A history of East European Jews Central European University Press, pg. 215
- ^ Kanzlerin Angela Merkel ist zu einem Viertel Polin, Die Welt
- ^ All in the Family: Chancellor Merkel's Heritage Pleases Poles, Der Spiegel
- ^ Merkel's Polish roots emerge in new book, The Local
References
- Biskupski, M. B. (1999). "Canada and the Creation of a Polish Army, 1914–1918". OCLC 260158745.
- Hapak, Joseph T. (1991). "Selective service and Polish Army recruitment during World War I". Journal of American Ethnic History. 10 (4). University of Illinois Press on behalf of the Immigration & Ethnic History Society: 38–60. JSTOR 27500870.
- Hind, Andrew (27 January 2015). "Polish Patriots: in Niagara-on-the-Lake 1917-1918". Today Magazine. Retrieved 30 November 2017.
- Pliska, Stanley R. (1965). "The 'Polish-American Army' 1917–1921". OCLC 260158745.
- Ruskoski, David Thomas (28 July 2006). The Polish Army in France: Immigrants in America, World War I Volunteers in France, Defenders of the Recreated State in Poland (PhD thesis). Georgia State University. Retrieved 30 November 2017.
- Skrzeszewski, Stan (2014). The Daily Life of Polish Soldiers Niagara Camp, 1917-1919 The Newspaper Columns of Elizabeth Ascher, St. Catharines Standard, 1917-1919 (PDF). Niagara Historical Museum. Archived from the original (PDF) on 10 October 2018. - Total pages: 100
- Strauss, Herbert A. (1993). Current Research on Anti-Semitism: Hostages of Modernization, Volumes 2-3. ISBN 9783110137156. - Total pages: 1427
- Valasek, Paul S. (2006). Haller's Polish Army in France. Whitehall Printing. ISBN 9780977975709. - Total pages: 432
External links
- Media related to Blue Army (Poland) at Wikimedia Commons
- Official website