Blue duck
Blue duck | |
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Blue duck at Staglands, Akatarawa Valley | |
Scientific classification | |
Domain: | Eukaryota |
Kingdom: | Animalia |
Phylum: | Chordata |
Class: | Aves |
Order: | Anseriformes |
Family: | Anatidae |
Genus: | Hymenolaimus G.R. Gray, 1843 |
Species: | H. malacorhynchos
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Binomial name | |
Hymenolaimus malacorhynchos (Gmelin, JF, 1789)
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Subspecies | |
See text | |
Synonyms | |
Anas malacorhynchus ( protonym )
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The blue duck or whio (Hymenolaimus malacorhynchos) is a member of the
The whio is depicted on the reverse side of the New Zealand $10 banknote.
Taxonomy
The species has no close relatives.
It is commonly known in
Two subspecies are recognised:[7]
- H. m. hymenolaimus Mathews, 1937 – central, south North Island (New Zealand)
- H. m. malacorhynchos (Gmelin, JF, 1789) – west South Island (New Zealand)
Prior to 2022, the North Island and South Island whio were considered distinct but were not distinguished as subspecies; they were, however, treated as separate management units.[15] However, the populations were defined as distinct subspecies by the International Ornithological Congress in 2022, based on strong genetic divergence and some plumage differences.[7]
Description
The blue duck is 53 cm (21 in) long and varies in weight by sex. Females are smaller than males, weighing 680–870 g (24–31 oz), whereas the males weigh 820–970 grams (29–34 oz).[16] The plumage is a dark slate-grey with a greenish sheen on the head, a chestnut-flecked breast. The outer secondaries are tipped with white and the inner ones have black margins. The plumage of the two sexes are mostly the same, although the female has slightly less chestnut in the chest.[17] The pinkish-white bill has fleshy flaps of skin hanging from the sides of its tip. The beak is green at hatching and develops its final colour eight hours later .
Song
The male's call is a high-pitched whistle.[13][14] The female's call is a rattling growl or low-pitched grating notes.[13][14][18]
Behaviour
This
Diet
The blue duck feeds almost entirely on aquatic invertebrate larvae. A study of blue ducks on the Manganuiateao River in the central North Island found the most common prey items were Chironomidae (midge) and cased caddisfly larvae, although cased caddisfly were less preferred and were only consumed so much because of their abundance. Hydrobiosidae (free-living caddisfly) and Aphrophila neozelandica (crane fly) larvae were also frequently eaten. Other prey included mayfly, Aoteapysche (net-building caddis) and stonefly larvae.[19] The blue duck on occasion take berries and the fruits of shrubs.[1]
Breeding
Blue ducks nest between August and October, laying 4–9 creamy white eggs. The female incubates the eggs for 31 to 32 days and chicks can fly when about 70 days old.[16]
Nesting and egg incubation of four to seven eggs is undertaken by the female while the male stands guard. Nests are shallow, twig, grass and down-lined scrapes in caves, under river-side vegetation or in log-jams, and are therefore very prone to spring floods. For this, and other reasons, their breeding success is extremely variable from one year to the next.[20]
Captivity
Captive North Island whio are held and bred on both main islands of New Zealand, but the progeny are returned to their respective island. South Island whio are held and bred in captivity on the South Island only. All captives are kept by approved and permitted zoological and wildlife facilities as part of the national recovery plan. As part of this current ten-year plan (2009–2019) is the WHIONE programme which works with specially trained nose dogs to locate nests. The eggs are removed, and the ducklings hatched and raised in captivity. Later they are conditioned for coordinated release.
Blue ducks were presented to the International Waterfowl Association in the UK in the 1970s along with
Status
The blue duck is classified as
The blue duck is a very localised species now threatened by predation from introduced mammals such as
In 2011 the New Zealand Department of Conservation and Genesis Energy started the Whio Forever Project, a five-year management programme for whio. It will enable the implementation of a national recovery plan that will double the number of fully operational secure blue duck breeding sites throughout New Zealand, and boost pest control efforts.
References
- ^ a b c BirdLife International. (2022). "Hymenolaimus malacorhynchos". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2022: e.T22680121A214275489. Retrieved 5 June 2023.
- ^ Cook, James; Furneaux, Tobias (1777). A Voyage Towards the South Pole, and Round the World : Performed in His Majesty's ships the Resolution and Adventure, in the Years 1772, 1773, 1774, and 1775. Vol. 1 (2nd ed.). London: W. Strahan and T. Cadell. pp. 72, 97.
- ^ Forster, Georg (1777). A Voyage Round the World, in His Britannic Majesty's Sloop, Resolution, Commanded by Capt. James Cook, During the Years 1772, 3, 4, and 5. Vol. 1. London: B. White, P. Elmsly, G. Robinson. p. 157.
- ^ Latham, John (1785). A General Synopsis of Birds. Vol. 2, Part 2. London: Printed for Leigh and Sotheby. p. 522. Archived from the original on 1 July 2022. Retrieved 1 July 2022.
- ^ Gmelin, Johann Friedrich (1789). Systema naturae per regna tria naturae : secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis (in Latin). Vol. 1, Part 2 (13th ed.). Lipsiae [Leipzig]: Georg. Emanuel. Beer. p. 526. Archived from the original on 29 June 2022. Retrieved 1 July 2022.
- from the original on 20 June 2022. Retrieved 1 July 2022.
- ^ Rasmussen, Pamela, eds. (January 2022). "Screamers, ducks, geese & swans". IOC World Bird List Version 12.1. International Ornithologists' Union. Archivedfrom the original on 1 October 2017. Retrieved 1 July 2022.
- ISBN 978-1-4081-2501-4.
- ^ "Habitat loss > Hymenolaimus malacorhynchos (blue duck, whio) > Taxonomy". NHM.ac.uk. Natural History Museum, London. Archived from the original on 14 August 2014. Retrieved 5 December 2014.
- ^ Howard, Richard; Moore, Alick (2013). A complete checklist of the birds of the world (4th ed.).
- ^ Kear, J. (2005). Bird families of the world: Ducks, geese and swans. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
- (PDF) from the original on 17 February 2020. Retrieved 29 May 2016.
- ^ OCLC 776539108.
- ^ a b c d "Blue Duck". Archived from the original on 30 May 2022. Retrieved 26 September 2020.
- ^ Robertson, B. C.; Paley, R.; Gemmell, N. J. (2003). Broad-scale genetic population structure in blue duck Hymenolaimus malacorhynchos. Pilot study of mitochondrial genetic variation (Report). DOC Science Internal Series. Vol. 112. New Zealand Department of Conservation. p. 12.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-19-553068-1. Archived(PDF) from the original on 9 August 2022. Retrieved 1 July 2022.
- ^ Carboneras, K.; Kirwan, G.M. (2017). del Hoyo, Josep; Elliott, Andrew; Sargatal, Jordi; Christie, David A.; de Juana, Eduardo (eds.). "Blue Duck (Hymenolaimus malacorhynchos)". Handbook of the Birds of the World Alive. Barcelona, Spain: Lynx Edicions. Archived from the original on 4 April 2023. Retrieved 5 December 2017.
- ISBN 978-0-7470-2201-5.
- .
- ^ "Blue duck/whio". New Zealand Department of Conservation – Te Papa Atawhai. Archived from the original on 2 March 2015. Retrieved 13 March 2015.
- ^ "Ducky companion saves blue Jerry from a lonely life". WWT.org.uk. Wildfowl & Wetlands Trust. 5 March 2012. Archived from the original on 9 December 2014. Retrieved 5 December 2014.
- ^ Lite, Jordan. "Gay ducks derail repopulation plan". Scientific American Blog Network. Archived from the original on 4 December 2021. Retrieved 4 December 2021.
- ^ "Blue Duck". British Waterfowl Association. Archived from the original on 5 March 2022. Retrieved 5 March 2022.
- OCLC 166312805.
- ISBN 978-0-478-14841-1. Archived from the original(PDF) on 25 April 2012. Retrieved 21 November 2011.
- ^ a b Hansford, Dave (July–August 2018). "The first test". New Zealand Geographic. 152: 74–91. Archived from the original on 6 August 2018. Retrieved 5 August 2018.
Further reading
- Adams, J.; Cunningham, D.; Molloy, J.; Phillipson, S. (1997). "Blue duck (Whio) Hymenolaimus malacorhynchos recovery plan 1997–2007" (PDF). Wellington, New Zealand: Department of Conservation. Archived (PDF) from the original on 14 October 2012. Retrieved 7 November 2007.
- Whitehead, A.; Edge, K.; Smart, A.; Hill, G.; Willans, M. (2008). "Large scale predator control improves the productivity of a rare New Zealand riverine duck". Biological Conservation. 141 (11): 2784–2794. .
- Whitehead, A.; Elliott, G.; McIntosh, A. (2010). "Large-scale predator control increases population viability of a rare New Zealand riverine duck". Austral Ecology. 35 (7): 722–730. .
External links
- ARKive: Images and movies of the Blue Duck (Hymenolaimus malacorhynchos)
- BirdLife Species Factsheet.
- Blue duck/Whio at the Department of Conservation
- TerraNature | New Zealand ecology – Blue duck (Whio)
- Blue Duck Project Charitable Trust
- Whio Forever Project
- Central North Island Blue Duck Trust Archived 16 May 2013 at the Wayback Machine