Bodybuilding
International Federation of BodyBuilding & Fitness | |
Nicknames | BB |
---|---|
First developed | England, late 19th century |
Characteristics | |
Contact | No |
Team members | No |
Mixed-sex | No |
Type | Indoor |
Venue | Auditorium |
Presence | |
Country or region | Worldwide |
Olympic | No |
Paralympic | No |
World Games | 1981–2009 |
Bodybuilding is the practice of
In competitive bodybuilding, competitors appear onstage in line-ups and perform specified poses (and later individual posing routines) for a panel of judges who rank them based on conditioning, muscularity, posing, size, stage presentation, and symmetry.
Bodybuilding requires significant time and effort to reach the desired results. A novice bodybuilder may be able to gain 8–15 pounds (4–7 kg) of muscle per year if they lift weights for seven hours per week, but muscle gains begin to slow down after the first two years to about 5–15 pounds (2–7 kg) per year. After five years, gains can decrease to as little as 3–10 pounds (1–5 kg) per year.
The winner of the annual
History
Early history
Stone-lifting competitions were practiced in ancient
Eugen Sandow
Bodybuilding developed in the late 19th century, promoted in England by
Sandow was so successful at flexing and posing his physique that he later created several businesses around his fame, and was among the first to market products branded with his name. He was credited with inventing and selling the first exercise equipment for the masses: machined dumbbells, spring pulleys, and tension bands. Even his image was sold by the thousands in "cabinet cards" and other prints.
First large-scale bodybuilding competition
Sandow organized the first bodybuilding contest on September 14, 1901, called the "Great Competition". It was held at the
The first large-scale bodybuilding competition in America took place from December 28, 1903 to January 2, 1904,[12] at Madison Square Garden in New York City. The competition was promoted by Bernarr Macfadden, the father of physical culture and publisher of original bodybuilding magazines such as Health & Strength. The winner was Al Treloar, who was declared "The Most Perfectly Developed Man in the World".[13] Treloar won a thousand dollar cash prize, a substantial sum at that time. Two weeks later, Thomas Edison made a film of Treloar's posing routine. Edison had also made two films of Sandow a few years before. Those were the first three motion pictures featuring a bodybuilder. In the early 20th century, Macfadden and Charles Atlas continued to promote bodybuilding across the world.
Notable early bodybuilders
Many other important bodybuilders in the early history of bodybuilding prior to 1930 include: Earle Liederman (writer of some of bodybuilding's earliest books),
1950s–1960s
Bodybuilding became more popular in the 1950s and 1960s with the emergence of strength and
During the 1950s, the most successful and most famous competing bodybuilders were
1970s–1990s
New organizations
In the 1970s, bodybuilding had major publicity thanks to the appearance of Arnold Schwarzenegger, Franco Columbu, Lou Ferrigno, Mike Mentzer and others in the 1977 docudrama Pumping Iron. By this time, the IFBB dominated the competitive bodybuilding landscape and the Amateur Athletic Union (AAU) took a back seat. The National Physique Committee (NPC) was formed in 1981 by Jim Manion,[18] who had just stepped down as chairman of the AAU Physique Committee. The NPC has gone on to become the most successful bodybuilding organization in the United States and is the amateur division of the IFBB. The late 1980s and early 1990s saw the decline of AAU-sponsored bodybuilding contests. In 1999, the AAU voted to discontinue its bodybuilding events.
Anabolic/androgenic steroid use
This period also saw the rise of anabolic steroids in bodybuilding and many other sports. More significant use began with Arnold Schwarzenegger, Sergio Oliva, and Lou Ferrigno in the late 1960s and early 1970s, and continuing through the 1980s with Lee Haney, the 1990s with Dorian Yates, Ronnie Coleman, and Markus Rühl, and up to the present day. Bodybuilders such as Greg Kovacs attained mass and size never seen previously but were not successful at the pro level. Others were renowned for their spectacular development of a particular body part, like Tom Platz or Paul Demayo for their leg muscles. At the time of shooting Pumping Iron, Schwarzenegger, while never admitting to steroid use until long after his retirement, said, "You have to do anything you can to get the advantage in competition".[citation needed] He would later say that he did not regret using steroids.[19]
To combat anabolic steroid use and in the hopes of becoming a member of the
World Bodybuilding Federation
In 1990,
The IFBB's inaugural championship in June 1991 (won by Gary Strydom) received mixed reviews. The WBF would be indirectly impacted by a steroid scandal involving the WWF, prompting the organization to impose a drug testing policy prior to the 1992 championship. The drug testing policy hampered the quality of the 1992 championship, while attempts to increase interest by hiring WCW wrestler Lex Luger as a figurehead (hosting a WBF television program on USA Network, and planning to make a guest pose during the 1992 championship before being injured in a motorcycle accident) and attempting to sign Lou Ferrigno (who left the organization shortly after the drug testing policy was announced) did not come to fruition. The second PPV received a minuscule audience, and the WBF dissolved only one month later in July 1992.[22][23][24]
2000s
In 2003,
In the early 21st century, patterns of consumption and recreation similar to those of the United States became more widespread in Europe and especially in Eastern Europe following the collapse of the Soviet Union. This resulted in the emergence of whole new populations of bodybuilders from former Eastern Bloc states.[26][self-published source?]
Olympic sport discussion
In the early 2000s, the IFBB was attempting to make bodybuilding an Olympic sport. It obtained full IOC membership in 2000 and was attempting to get approved as a demonstration event at the Olympics, which would hopefully lead to it being added as a full contest. This did not happen and Olympic recognition for bodybuilding remains controversial since many argue that bodybuilding is not a sport.[27]
Social media
The advent of social media had a profound influence on fitness and bodybuilding. It is common to see platforms such as Instagram, TikTok, and YouTube flooded with fitness-related content, changing how the average person views and interacts with fitness culture. Gym clothing brands like Gymshark, YoungLA and Rawgear leveraged this platform to create their brands.[28] By recruiting fitness ambassadors—real people who embody their brand values—these companies personalize their marketing strategy and create a more relatable image. These ambassadors, often in the form of fitness influencers or personal trainers, promote the brand by sharing their workout routines, dietary plans, and gym clothing. YouTube in particular has seen a surge in fitness content, ranging from gym vlogs to detailed discussions on workout attire. This not only provides consumers with an abundance of free resources to aid their fitness journey, but also creates a more informed consumer base.
Another growing trend with gym-related social media is the phenomenon of gym-shaming; a video posted by content creator Jessica Fernandez on Twitch that went viral showed her lifting weights in a gym while a man in the background stared at her, sparking a widespread debate about narcissism and an increasingly toxic gym culture in the age of social media. The video led to criticism of an emerging trend in which gyms, once known as places for focused workouts, are now being treated as filming locations for aspiring or established influencers with bystanders being unintentionally placed under the public eye in the process. Bodybuilder Joey Swoll, who voiced his concerns over this culture, addressed the controversy by stating that while harassment in gyms needs to be addressed, the man in Fernandez's video was not guilty of it.[29] Although social media is giving more attention to the world of bodybuilding, there are still some areas that are controversial.[vague]
Areas
Professional bodybuilding
In the modern bodybuilding industry, the term "professional" generally means a bodybuilder who has won qualifying competitions as an amateur and has earned a "pro card" from their respective organization. Professionals earn the right to compete in competitions that include monetary prizes. A pro card also prohibits the athlete from competing in federations other than the one from which they have received the pro card.[30] Depending on the level of success, these bodybuilders may receive monetary compensation from sponsors, much like athletes in other sports.
Natural bodybuilding
Due to the growing concerns of the high cost, health consequences, and illegal nature of some steroids, many organizations have formed in response and have deemed themselves "natural" bodybuilding competitions. In addition to the concerns noted, many promoters of bodybuilding have sought to shed the "freakish" perception that the general public has of bodybuilding and have successfully introduced a more mainstream audience to the sport of bodybuilding by including competitors whose physiques appear much more attainable and realistic.[31]
In natural contests, the testing protocol ranges among organizations from
Men's physique
Due to those who found open-bodybuilding to be "too big" or "ugly" and unhealthy, a new category was started in 2013.[32] The first Men's Physique Olympia winner was Mark Wingson, who was followed by Jeremy Buendia for four consecutive years. Like open-bodybuilding, the federations in which bodybuilders can compete are natural divisions as well as normal ones. The main difference between the two is that men's physique competitors pose in board shorts rather than a traditional posing suit and open-bodybuilders are much larger and are more muscular than the men's physique competitors.[33] Open-bodybuilders have an extensive routine for posing while the Physique category is primarily judged by the front and back poses.[34] Many of the men's physique competitors are not above 200 lbs and have a bit of a more attainable and aesthetic physique in comparison to open-bodybuilders.[35] Although this category started off slowly, it has grown tremendously, and currently men's physique seems to be a more popular class than open-bodybuilding.[36]
Classic physique
This is the middle ground of both Men's Physique and Bodybuilding. The competitors in this category are not nearly as big as bodybuilders but not as small as men's physique competitors. They pose and perform in men's boxer briefs to show off the legs, unlike Men's Physique which hide the legs in board shorts. Classic physique started in 2016. Danny Hester was the first classic physique Mr. Olympia. As of 2023[update], Chris Bumstead is the 5x reigning Mr. Olympia.[37]
Female bodybuilding
The female movement of the 1960s, combined with Title IX and the all around fitness revolution, gave birth to new alternative perspectives of feminine beauty that included an athletic physique of toned muscle. This athletic physique was found in various popular media outlets such as fashion magazines. Female bodybuilders changed the limits of traditional femininity as their bodies showed that muscles are not only just for men.[38]
The first U.S. Women's National Physique Championship, promoted by Henry McGhee and held in 1978 in Canton, Ohio, is generally regarded as the first true female bodybuilding contest—that is, the first contest where the entrants were judged solely on muscularity.[39] In 1980, the first Ms. Olympia (initially known as the "Miss" Olympia), the most prestigious contest for professionals, was held. The first winner was Rachel McLish, who had also won the NPC's USA Championship earlier in the year. The contest was a major turning point for female bodybuilding. McLish inspired many future competitors to start training and competing.[citation needed]
In 1985, the documentary Pumping Iron II: The Women was released. It documented the preparation of several women for the 1983 Caesars Palace World Cup Championship. Competitors prominently featured in the film were Kris Alexander, Lori Bowen, Lydia Cheng, Carla Dunlap, Bev Francis, and McLish. At the time, Francis was actually a powerlifter, though she soon made a successful transition to bodybuilding, becoming one of the leading competitors of the late 1980s and early 1990s.[40]
The related areas of
E. Wilma Conner competed in the 2011 NPC Armbrust Pro Gym Warrior Classic Championships in Loveland, Colorado, at the age of 75 years and 349 days.[41]
Competition
In competitive bodybuilding, bodybuilders aspire to present an "aesthetically pleasing" body on stage.[42][43] In prejudging, competitors do a series of mandatory poses: the front lat spread, rear lat spread, front double biceps, back double biceps, side chest, side triceps, Most Muscular (men only), abdominals and thighs. Each competitor also performs a personal choreographed routine to display their physique. A posedown is usually held at the end of a posing round, while judges are finishing their scoring. Bodybuilders usually spend a lot of time practising their posing in front of mirrors or under the guidance of their coach.[citation needed]
In contrast to
Preparations
Bulking and cutting
The general strategy adopted by most present-day competitive bodybuilders is to make muscle gains for most of the year (known as the "off-season") and, approximately 12–14 weeks from competition, lose a maximum of body fat (referred to as "cutting") while preserving as much muscular mass as possible. The bulking phase entails remaining in a net positive energy balance (calorie surplus). The amount of a surplus in which a person remains is based on the person's goals, as a bigger surplus and longer bulking phase will create more fat tissue. The surplus of calories relative to one's energy balance will ensure that muscles remain in a state of anabolism.[45]
The cutting phase entails remaining in a net negative energy balance (calorie deficit). The main goal of cutting is to
The bulking and cutting strategy is considered effective because there is a well-established link between muscle hypertrophy and being in a state of positive energy balance.[47] A sustained period of caloric surplus will allow the athlete to gain more fat-free mass than they could otherwise gain under eucaloric conditions. Some gain in fat mass is expected, which athletes seek to oxidize in a cutting period while maintaining as much lean mass as possible.[citation needed] However, it is unclear whether one can maintain enough fat-free mass during cutting for the overall process to be worth it.[48][49]
Clean bulking
The attempt to increase muscle mass in one's body without any gain in fat is called clean bulking. Competitive bodybuilders focus their efforts to achieve a peak appearance during a brief "competition season".
Dirty bulking
"Dirty bulking" is the process of eating at a massive caloric surplus without trying to figure out the exact amount of ingested macronutrients, often down with junk food such as burgers and fries. Weightlifters who attempt to gain mass quickly with no aesthetic concerns often choose to do this.[52]
Muscle growth
Bodybuilders use three main strategies to maximize muscle hypertrophy:
- Strength training through weights or elastic/hydraulic resistance.
- Specialized nutrition, incorporating extra protein and supplements when necessary.
- Adequate rest, including recuperation between workouts.[53]
Weight training
This section needs more primary sources. (March 2022) |
Intensive
Weight training aims to build muscle by prompting two different types of hypertrophy: sarcoplasmic and myofibrillar. Sarcoplasmic hypertrophy leads to larger muscles and so is favored by bodybuilders more than myofibrillar hypertrophy, which builds athletic strength. Sarcoplasmic hypertrophy is triggered by increasing repetitions, whereas myofibrillar hypertrophy is triggered by lifting heavier weight.[55] In either case, there is an increase in both size and strength of the muscles (compared to what happens if that same individual does not lift weights at all), although the emphasis is different.[55]
Nutrition
The high levels of muscle growth and repair achieved by bodybuilders require a specialized diet. Generally speaking, bodybuilders require more
Carbohydrates
Protein
The motor proteins actin and myosin generate the forces exerted by contracting muscles. Cortisol decreases amino acid uptake by muscle and inhibits protein synthesis.[62] Current recommendations suggest that bodybuilders should consume 25–30% of protein per total calorie intake to further their goal of maintaining and improving their body composition.[63] This is a widely debated topic, with many arguing that 1 gram of protein per pound of body weight per day is ideal, some suggesting that less is sufficient, while others recommending 1.5, 2, or more.[64] It is believed that protein needs to be consumed frequently throughout the day, especially during/after a workout, and before sleep.[65] There is also some debate concerning the best type of protein to take. Chicken, turkey, beef, pork, fish, eggs and dairy foods are high in protein, as are some nuts, seeds, beans, and lentils. Casein or whey are often used to supplement the diet with additional protein. Whey is the type of protein contained in many popular brands of protein supplements and is preferred by many bodybuilders because of its high biological value (BV) and quick absorption rates. Whey protein also has a bigger effect than casein on insulin levels, triggering about double the amount of insulin release.[66] That effect is somewhat overcome by combining casein and whey.
Bodybuilders were previously thought to require protein with a higher BV than that of
Meals
Some bodybuilders often split their food intake into 5 to 7 meals of equal nutritional content and eat at regular intervals (e.g., every 2 to 3 hours). This approach serves two purposes: to limit overindulging in the cutting phase, and to allow for the consumption of large volumes of food during the bulking phase. Eating more frequently does not increase
Dietary supplements
The important role of nutrition in building muscle and losing fat means bodybuilders may consume a wide variety of
Performance-enhancing substances
Some bodybuilders use drugs such as
Muscle growth is more difficult to achieve in older adults than younger adults because of
In rodents, knockdown of
Injecting oil into muscles
Some bodybuilders inject oils or other compounds into their muscles (sometimes known as "synthol") in order to enhance their size or appearance. This practice can have serious health consequences.[82]
Rest
Although muscle stimulation occurs when lifting weights, muscle growth occurs during rest periods for up to 48 hours after the workout.[83] Some bodybuilders add a massage at the end of each workout to their routine as a method of recovering.[84]
Overtraining
Overtraining occurs when a bodybuilder has trained to the point where their workload exceeds their recovery capacity. There are many reasons why overtraining occurs, including lack of adequate nutrition, lack of recovery time between workouts, insufficient sleep, and training at a high intensity for too long (a lack of splitting apart workouts). Training at a high intensity too frequently also stimulates the
An article by Muscle & Fitness magazine, "Overtrain for Big Gains", claimed that overtraining for a brief period can be beneficial. Overtraining can be used advantageously, as when a bodybuilder is purposely overtrained for a brief period of time to super compensate during a regeneration phase. These are known as "shock micro-cycles" and were a key training technique used by Soviet athletes.[87]
See also
References
- ^ a b Emery M. "Men's Bodybuilding: A Short History". Bodybuildingreviews.net. Archived from the original on September 14, 2020. Retrieved February 25, 2014.
- ^ Admin. "Judging Criteria". World Natural Bodybuilding Federation. Retrieved October 15, 2023.
- ^ "Shaving Body Hair For Men!". Bodybuilding.com. August 30, 2010. Archived from the original on June 26, 2020. Retrieved January 12, 2021.
- Livestrong.com. Archivedfrom the original on April 23, 2021. Retrieved February 15, 2021.
- ^ "Anabolic Steroids and Other Appearance and Performance Enhancing Drugs (APEDs)". National Institute on Drug Abuse. Retrieved October 15, 2023.
- ^ "Should The IFBB Ban Steroids For Real?". Bodybuilding.com. March 16, 2005. Archived from the original on June 25, 2020. Retrieved January 12, 2021.
- ^ a b Karthikeyan D (January 12, 2013). "Locked horns and a flurry of feathers". The Hindu. Archived from the original on May 11, 2013. Retrieved July 2, 2017 – via www.thehindu.com.
- ISBN 978-0684857213.
- ^ "This footage taken by Thomas Edison in 1904, shows women and men bodybuilding". The Vintage News. March 26, 2016. Archived from the original on April 23, 2021. Retrieved April 23, 2021.
- ^ Rhodes J (July 19, 2009). "Bodybuilders Through the Ages". Archived from the original on November 6, 2013. Retrieved September 24, 2013.
- ^ "The Fascinating Story of the First Bodybuilding Show". BarBend. May 16, 2018. Archived from the original on April 23, 2021. Retrieved April 23, 2021.
- ^ Ryan, Eugene Avery (1899). "Physical Culture, vol. 10, no. 6 (December 1903), p. 555". Archived from the original on February 4, 2021. Retrieved August 16, 2019.
- ^ "Al Treloar at SandowPlus.com". Sandowplus.co.uk. December 28, 1903. Archived from the original on June 29, 2012. Retrieved October 5, 2012.
- ^ "STRONGFORTISM - LESSON ONE". Archived from the original on August 2, 2008.
- ISBN 978-1-4840-1198-0. Archivedfrom the original on April 5, 2023. Retrieved May 3, 2021.
- ^ "A History Lesson In Bodybuilding". Bodybuilding.com. March 21, 2005. Archived from the original on April 23, 2021. Retrieved April 23, 2021.
- ^ Ozyurtcu, Tolga (August 2014). Flex marks the spot: histories of Muscle Beach (Thesis thesis). Archived from the original on April 23, 2021. Retrieved April 23, 2021.
- ^ "IFBB Professional League - Jim Manion, Chairman IFBB Professional League". Ifbbpro.com. September 26, 2007. Archived from the original on September 21, 2012. Retrieved October 5, 2012.
- ^ "Arnold: No Regrets About Steroids". CBS. February 11, 2009. Archived from the original on November 6, 2013. Retrieved August 13, 2013.
- ^ Theunissen S. "Arnold & Steroids: Truth Revealed". Archived from the original on October 8, 2003. Retrieved February 27, 2007.
- ^ Branch, Legislative Services (September 19, 2019). "Consolidated federal laws of canada, Controlled Drugs and Substances Act". laws-lois.justice.gc.ca. Archived from the original on April 8, 2022. Retrieved January 24, 2020.
- ^ a b "When Bodybuilding Met Wrestling: The Bizarre Tale of the World Bodybuilding Federation". BarBend. March 17, 2020. Archived from the original on May 24, 2021. Retrieved May 24, 2021.
- ^ OCLC 244769018.
- ^ a b "Vince McMahon's Attempt to Take Over Bodybuilding". Muscle & Fitness. March 7, 2019. Archived from the original on June 25, 2021. Retrieved May 24, 2021.
- ^ "American Media, Inc. Acquires Full Ownership Of Mr. Olympia Competition". www.prnewswire.com (Press release). September 5, 2017. Archived from the original on May 19, 2020. Retrieved February 8, 2023.
- ISBN 978-1-4840-1198-0.
- ^ Littman J (November 13, 2007). "Bodybuilding And The Olympics: An Ongoing Controversy". article99.com. Archived from the original on December 5, 2007.
- ^ Kulke, Catherine. "How YoungLA Became 2022's Hottest Men's Activewear Brand". www.tribedynamics.com. Retrieved May 17, 2023.
- ^ Kristen Fleming (February 23, 2023). "Bodybuilder Joey Swoll has had enough of fitness influencers". Retrieved May 17, 2023.[unreliable source?]
- ^ "IFBB FAQ". International Fitness and Bodybuilding Federation. Archived from the original on February 8, 2023. Retrieved February 8, 2023.
- ^ a b "Beginner's Guide To Natural Bodybuilding Competition: Disseminating Misconception From Reality!". Bodybuilding.com. May 10, 2009. Archived from the original on January 26, 2020. Retrieved January 24, 2020.
- ^ Spice, Robyn Charlotte (2016). "Strong is the new slim: a study of the body and gender amongst female free weights users". University of Stirling. Archived from the original on May 12, 2021. Retrieved April 23, 2021.
- ^ "How Bodybuilding is Judged, Different Divisions, and Scoring". BarBend. November 27, 2020. Archived from the original on April 23, 2021. Retrieved April 23, 2021.
- ^ "Excellence In Execution: Perfecting The Pose". Bodybuilding.com. March 20, 2005. Archived from the original on April 23, 2021. Retrieved April 23, 2021.
- PMID 32148575.)
{{cite journal}}
: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of January 2024 (link - ^ Liokaftos, Dimitrios (February 2012). From 'Classical' To 'Freaky:' An Exploration of the Development of Dominant, Organised, Male Bodybuilding Culture (doctoral thesis). Goldsmiths, University of London. Archived from the original on April 23, 2021. Retrieved April 23, 2021.
- ^ Bachu, Ramya (December 18, 2022). "Bodybuilding World Reacts to Chris Bumstead's Fourth Mr.Olympia Triumph". EssentiallySports. Retrieved August 30, 2023.
- ISBN 978-0-203-80945-7. Archivedfrom the original on April 5, 2023. Retrieved October 4, 2021.
- ^ Todd, Jan, "Bodybuilding", St. James Encyclopedia of Pop Culture, Gale Group, 1999
- ^ Shain, Cera R. (March 20, 2019). ""The Most Muscular Woman I Have Ever Seen": Bev Francis's Performance of Gender in Pumping Iron II: The Women". p. 43. Retrieved November 2, 2023.
- ISBN 978-1-908843-15-9.
- ^ "Top 10 Most Impressive Bodybuilder Physiques of All Time". Muscleprodigy. Archived from the original on July 29, 2017. Retrieved June 14, 2013.
- ^ "Judging the 2008 Mr. Olympia: Judges Provide Full Transparency and Complete Explanation of Results". Muscletime. Archived from the original on May 16, 2019. Retrieved June 14, 2013.
- S2CID 144186372.
- ^ "Reverse Dieting: How to Go From Cut to Bulk Without Gaining Fat". Men's Journal. December 2017. Archived from the original on January 24, 2020. Retrieved January 24, 2020.
- S2CID 17233384.
- ^ the science and development of muscle hypertrophy, Dr. Brad Schoenfeld, page 139-140
- PMID 28458804.
- S2CID 128359542.
- ^ "The Clean Bulk: A New Approach To Adding Offseason Muscle". Bodybuilding.com. October 16, 2016. Archived from the original on April 7, 2020. Retrieved April 7, 2020.
- ^ Giblin, Chris. "Clean Bulking: for Frustrated Hard-Gainers, Clean Bulking Is Attainable If You Focus Your Diet Accordingly with the Right Foods and Strategy." Joe Weider's Muscle & Fitness, vol. 75, no. 8, 2014, p. 89.
- ^ Rian Evans (June 13, 2010). "Dirty Bulking: Why You Need To Know The Dirty Truth!". Bodybuilding.com. Archived from the original on February 8, 2023. Retrieved February 8, 2023.
- ^ "9 things every athlete needs to know about sleep and recovery". Men's Journal. March 1, 2017. Archived from the original on October 29, 2021. Retrieved October 14, 2021.
- S2CID 28377940.
- ^ a b "Weight Training Intensity or Volume for Bigger Muscles?". October 15, 2010. Archived from the original on March 10, 2012. Retrieved February 24, 2012.
- ^ "Major Nutrients in Food". webMd. Archived from the original on September 5, 2013. Retrieved August 27, 2013.
- S2CID 38151979.
- ProQuest 208050071.
- PMID 21864752.
- S2CID 6649224.
- ^ King MW. "Substrates for Gluconeogenesis". IU School of Medicine. Archived from the original on June 21, 2000. Retrieved March 11, 2007.
- ISBN 978-0-323-14257-1.
- S2CID 17233384.
- better source needed]
- ^ "Your nutrition problems solved; This month: pre- and postworkout nutrition, calculating protein intake and adding simple carbs". FLEX Magazine, January 2005
- PMID 22289570.
- ^ Falcon M. "Estrogens, Testosterone & Phytoestrogens". maxmuscle.com. Archived from the original on October 25, 2006.
- ISBN 978-0-87131-829-9.[page needed]
- PMID 8399092.
- PMID 9155494.
- S2CID 19686244.
- PMID 18053311.
- PMID 1501305.
- PMID 16424293.
- S2CID 25911263.
- PMID 10710012.
- ISBN 9781134588527. Archivedfrom the original on April 5, 2023. Retrieved June 30, 2020.
- S2CID 24874132.
- S2CID 12681649.
- S2CID 30263334.
- PMID 27956698.
- PMID 32921778.
- ^ Braverman, Jody (April 10, 2019). "When Do Muscles Grow After Working Out With Weights?". livestrong. Archived from the original on September 24, 2023. Retrieved March 2, 2024.
It's after you finish your workout…that your body is busy making new muscle protein.
- ISBN 978-1107019065.
- ^ Lonnie Lowery (2004). "The Warrior Nerd: Overtraining or Undereating, part 1". TESTOSTERONE! NATION. Archived from the original on September 27, 2007. Retrieved February 8, 2023.
- S2CID 20128770.
- S2CID 2021999. Archived (PDF) from the original on August 9, 2017.)
{{cite journal}}
: CS1 maint: date and year (link