Bohemia

Coordinates: 50°N 15°E / 50°N 15°E / 50; 15
Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
For other uses, see Bohemia (disambiguation).

Bohemia
Čechy (Czech)
Čěska (Upper Sorbian)
Böhmen (German)
Historical land
Karlštejn Castle
Náměstí Republiky, Plzeň
Prague
Karlovy Vary
UTC+2 (CEST
)

Bohemia (/boʊˈhiːmiə/ boh-HEE-mee-ə;[2] Czech: Čechy [ˈtʃɛxɪ] ⓘ;[3] German: Böhmen [ˈbøːmən] ⓘ) is the westernmost and largest historical region of the Czech Republic. Bohemia can also refer to a wider area consisting of the historical Lands of the Bohemian Crown ruled by the Bohemian kings, including Moravia and Czech Silesia,[4] in which case the smaller region is referred to as Bohemia proper as a means of distinction.[5]

Bohemia was a duchy of Great Moravia, later an independent principality, a kingdom in the Holy Roman Empire, and subsequently a part of the Habsburg monarchy and the Austrian Empire.[6] After World War I and the establishment of an independent Czechoslovak state, the whole of Bohemia became a part of Czechoslovakia, defying claims of the German-speaking inhabitants that regions with German-speaking majority should be included in the Republic of German-Austria. Between 1938 and 1945, these border regions were annexed to Nazi Germany as the Sudetenland.[7]

The remainder of Czech territory became the

breakup of Czechoslovakia.[7]

Until 1948, Bohemia was an administrative unit of Czechoslovakia as one of its "lands" (země).

watershed
.

Etymology

See also: Name of the Czech Republic

In the second century BC, the Romans competed for dominance in northern Italy with various peoples, including the Gauls-Celtic tribe Boii. The Romans defeated the Boii at the Battle of Placentia (194 BC) and the Battle of Mutina (193 BC). Afterward, many of the Boii retreated north across the Alps.[12] Much later Roman authors refer to the area they had once occupied (the "desert of the Boii", as Pliny and Strabo called it[13]) as Boiohaemum. The earliest mention[12] is in Tacitus' Germania 28 (written at the end of the first century AD),[14] and later mentions of the same name are in Strabo and Velleius Paterculus.[15] The name appears to consist of the tribal name Boio- plus the Proto-Germanic noun *haimaz "home" (whence Gothic haims, German Heim, Heimat, English home), indicating a Proto-Germanic *Bajahaimaz.

Boiohaemum was apparently isolated to the area where King

Hercynian forest. Byzantine Emperor Constantine VII in his 10th-century work De Administrando Imperio also mentioned the region as Boiki (see White Serbia).[16][17][18][19][20]

The Czech name "Čechy" is derived from the name of the

ethnic group, the Czechs
, who settled in the area during the sixth or seventh century AD.

History

Further information: History of the Czech lands and History of Czechoslovakia
An 1892 map showing Bohemia proper outlined in pink, Moravia in yellow, and Austrian Silesia in orange

Ancient Bohemia

Bohemia, like neighboring Bavaria, is named after the Boii, a large Celtic nation known to the Romans for their migrations and settlement in northern Italy and other places. Another part of the nation moved west with the Helvetii into southern France, one of the events leading to the interventions of Julius Caesar's Gaulish campaign of 58 BC. The emigration of the Helvetii and Boii left southern Germany and Bohemia a lightly inhabited "desert" into which Suebic peoples arrived, speaking Germanic languages, and became dominant over remaining Celtic groups. To the south, over the Danube, the Romans extended their empire, and to the southeast, in present-day Hungary, were Dacian peoples.

In the area of modern Bohemia, the

Buri, which was sometimes partly controlled by the Roman Empire and sometimes in conflict with it; for example, in the second century, they fought Marcus Aurelius
.

In late classical times and the early Middle Ages, two new Suebic groupings appeared west of Bohemia in southern Germany, the Alemanni (in the Helvetian desert) and the Bavarians (Baiuvarii). Many Suebic tribes from the Bohemian region took part in such movements westward, settling as far away as Spain and Portugal. With them were also tribes who had pushed from the east, such as the Vandals and Alans.

Other groups pushed southward toward

Langobardi, who moved over many generations from the Baltic Sea, via the Elbe and Pannonia to Italy, recorded in a tribal history
a time spent in "Bainaib".

After the

Carinthia
.

Other sources (

Descriptio civitatum et regionum ad septentrionalem plagam Danubii
, Bavaria, 800–850) divide the population of Bohemia into the Merehani, Marharaii, Beheimare (Bohemani), and Fraganeo. (The suffix -ani or -ni means "people of-"). Christianity first appeared in the early 9th century, but became dominant only in the 10th or 11th century.

The 9th century was crucial for Bohemia's future. The manorial system sharply declined, as it did in Bavaria. The influence of the central Fraganeo-Czechs grew, as a result of the important cultic center in their territory. They were Slavic-speaking and contributed to the transformation of diverse neighboring populations into a new nation named and led by them with a united "Slavic" ethnic consciousness.[21]

Přemysl dynasty

Main article:
History of Bohemia in the High Middle Ages
The coat of arms of the Přemyslid dynasty (until 1253–1262)

Bohemia was made a part of the early Slavic state of

Magyars. Bohemia's initial incorporation into the Moravian Empire resulted in the extensive Christianization of the population. A native monarchy arose, and Bohemia came under the rule of the Přemyslid dynasty
, which ruled the Czech lands for several hundred years.

The Přemyslids secured their frontiers after the Moravian state's collapse by entering into a state of semivassalage to the Frankish rulers. The alliance was facilitated by Bohemia's conversion to Christianity in the 9th century. Continuing close relations were developed with the East Frankish Kingdom, which devolved from the Carolingian Empire, into East Francia, eventually becoming the Holy Roman Empire.

After a decisive victory of the Holy Roman Empire and Bohemia over invading Magyars in the 955

Bolesław I of Poland
.

The first to use the title of "King of Bohemia" were the Přemyslid dukes

Vratislav II (1085) and Vladislaus II (1158), but their heirs returned to the title of duke. The title of king became hereditary under Ottokar I (1198). His grandson Ottokar II (king from 1253 to 1278) conquered a short-lived empire that contained modern Austria and Slovenia. Substantial German immigration began in the mid-13th century, as the court sought to replace losses from the brief Mongol invasion of Europe
in 1241. Germans settled primarily along Bohemia's northern, western, and southern borders, although many lived in towns throughout the kingdom.

Luxembourg dynasty

The coat of arms of the Kingdom of Bohemia

The

Charles University in Prague
, Central Europe's first university, two years later.

His reign brought Bohemia to its peak both politically and in total area, resulting in his being the first king of Bohemia to be elected

Bohemian crown controlled such diverse lands as Moravia, Silesia, Upper Lusatia and Lower Lusatia, Brandenburg, an area around Nuremberg called New Bohemia, Luxembourg
, and several small towns scattered around Germany.

From the 13th century on, settlements of Germans developed throughout Bohemia, making Bohemia a bilingual country. The Germans brought mining technology to the mountainous regions of the Sudetes. In the mining town of Sankt Joachimsthal (now Jáchymov), famous coins called Joachimsthalers were coined, which gave their name to the thaler and the dollar.

Meanwhile, Prague German intermediated between Upper German and East Central German, influencing the foundations of modern standard German. At the same time and place, the teachings of Jan Hus, the rector of Charles University and a prominent reformer and religious thinker, influenced the rise of modern Czech.

Hussite Bohemia

The radical Hussites became known as Taborites, after the town of Tábor that became their center

During the ecumenical Council of Constance in 1415, Hus was sentenced to be burnt at the stake as a heretic. The verdict was passed even though Hus was granted formal protection by Emperor Sigismund of Luxembourg before the journey. Hus was invited to attend the council to defend himself and the Czech positions in the religious court, but with the emperor's approval, he was executed on 6 July 1415. His execution and five consecutive papal crusades against his followers forced the Bohemians to defend themselves in the Hussite Wars.

The uprising against imperial forces was led by a former mercenary, Jan Žižka of Trocnov. As the leader of the Hussite armies, he used innovative tactics and weapons, such as howitzers, pistols, and fortified wagons, which were revolutionary for the time and established Žižka as a great general who never lost a battle.

After Žižka's death,

Utraquists began to lay the groundwork for an agreement with the Catholic Church and found the more radical views of the Taborites distasteful. Additionally, with general war-weariness and yearning for order, the Utraquists were able to eventually defeat the Taborites in the Battle of Lipany
in 1434. Sigismund said after the battle that "only the Bohemians could defeat the Bohemians."

Despite an apparent victory for the Catholics, the Bohemian Utraquists were still strong enough to negotiate freedom of religion in 1436. That happened in the so-called Compacts of Basel, declaring peace and freedom between Catholics and Utraquists. It lasted only a short time, as Pope Pius II declared the compacts invalid in 1462.

In 1458, George of Poděbrady was elected to the Bohemian throne. He is remembered for his attempt to set up a pan-European "Christian League" that would form all the states of Europe into a community based on religion. In the process of negotiating, he appointed Zdeněk Lev of Rožmitál to tour the European courts and to conduct the talks. The negotiations were not completed because George's position was substantially damaged over time by his deteriorating relationship with the Pope.

Habsburg Monarchy

Main articles:
History of the Lands of the Bohemian Crown (1648–1867)
Bohemia as the heart of Europa regina; Sebastian Münster, Basel, 1570

After the death of King

Louis II of Hungary and Bohemia in the Battle of Mohács in 1526, Archduke Ferdinand I of Austria became the new king of Bohemia, and the country became a constituent state of the Habsburg monarchy
.

From 1599 to 1711, Moravia (a Land of the Bohemian Crown) was frequently raided by the Ottoman Empire and its vassals (especially the Tatars and Transylvania). Overall, hundreds of thousands were enslaved whilst tens of thousands were killed.[22]

Bohemia enjoyed religious freedom between 1436 and 1620 and became one of the most liberal countries of the Christian world during that period. In 1609, Holy Roman Emperor Rudolf II, who made Prague again the capital of the empire at the time, himself a Roman Catholic, was moved by the Bohemian nobility to publish Maiestas Rudolphina, which confirmed the older Confessio Bohemica of 1575.

After Emperor

James I of England and VI of Scotland
.

After Frederick's defeat in the Battle of White Mountain in 1620, 27 Bohemian estates leaders and Jan Jesenius, rector of the Charles University of Prague, were executed on Prague's Old Town Square on 21 June 1621, and the rest were exiled from the country; their lands were given to Catholic loyalists (mostly of Bavarian and Saxon origin). That ended the pro-reformation movement in Bohemia and the role of Prague as ruling city of the Holy Roman Empire.

The Kingdom of Bohemia    in 1618 with other Bohemian Crown lands    within the Holy Roman Empire   (1618).

In the so-called "renewed constitution" of 1627, German was established as a second official language in the Czech lands. Czech formally remained the kingdom's first language, but both German and Latin were widely spoken among the ruling classes, although German became increasingly dominant, and Czech was spoken in much of the countryside.

Detailed map of Bohemia, 1742
Detailed map of Bohemia, 1742

Bohemia's formal independence was further jeopardized when the Bohemian Diet approved administrative reform in 1749. It included the indivisibility of the Habsburg Empire and the centralization of rule, which essentially meant the merging of the Royal Bohemian Chancellery with the Austrian Chancellery.

At the end of the 18th century, the

first German Parliament at Frankfurt. Towns between Karlsbad and Reichenberg chose leftist representatives, while Eger, Rumburg, and Troppau elected conservative representatives.[23] The old Bohemian Diet, one of the last remnants of the independence, was dissolved, although Czech experienced a rebirth as romantic nationalism
developed among the Czechs.

In 1861, a new elected Bohemian Diet was established. The renewal of the old Bohemian Crown (

Duchy of Upper and Lower Silesia
) became the official political program of both Czech liberal politicians and the majority of Bohemian aristocracy ("state rights program"), while parties representing the German minority and small part of the aristocracy proclaimed their loyalty to the centralist Constitution (so-called "Verfassungstreue").

After Austria's defeat in the Austro-Prussian War in 1866, Hungarian politicians achieved the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867, ostensibly creating equality between the empire's Austrian and Hungarian halves. An attempt by the Czechs to create a tripartite monarchy (Austria-Hungary-Bohemia) failed in 1871. The "state-rights program" remained the official platform of all Czech political parties (except for social democrats) until 1918.

Under the state-rights program, appealing to the stability of Bohemia's borders over many centuries, the Czech emancipation movement claimed the right to the whole of the Bohemian lands over the Germans' right to the lands, amounting to a third of Bohemia, where they formed the majority.[24]

Interbellum

Bohemia (westernmost area) in Czechoslovakia 1918–1938
Linguistic map of interwar Czechoslovakia (c. 1930)

After World War I, the German Bohemians demanded that the regions with German-speaking majority be included in a German state. But Czech political leaders claimed the entire Bohemian lands, including majority German-speaking areas, for Czechoslovakia.[25] By the end of October, bilingual towns had been occupied by Czech forces. By end of November, many purely German-speaking towns had been occupied.[26] German or Austrian troops, bound by the ceasefire agreement, did not support Bohemian German self-defense, while the Czechoslovak army, an Entente army, could freely operate.[27] The absorption of the German-speaking areas in Czechoslovakia was hence a fait accompli.[28]

As a result, all of Bohemia (as the largest and most populous land) became the core of the newly formed country of

Carpathian Ruthenia into one state.[29] Under its first president, Tomáš Masaryk, Czechoslovakia became a liberal democratic republic, but serious issues emerged regarding the Czech majority's relationship with the German
and Hungarian minorities.

German occupation and World War II

After the Munich Agreement in 1938, the border regions of Bohemia historically inhabited predominantly by ethnic Germans (the Sudetenland) were annexed to Nazi Germany. The remnants of Bohemia and Moravia were then annexed by Germany in 1939, while the Slovak lands became the separate Slovak Republic, a puppet state of Nazi Germany. From 1939 to 1945, Bohemia (without the Sudetenland) and Moravia formed the German Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia.

During

forced labor,[31] and 16 subcamps of the Gross-Rosen concentration camp, in which men and women, mostly Polish and Jewish, but also Czechs, Russians, and other people, were similarly imprisoned and subjected to forced labor.[32]

Nazi authorities brutally suppressed any open opposition to German occupation, and many Czech patriots were executed as a result. In 1942, the Czechoslovak resistance assassinated Reinhard Heydrich, and in reprisal German forces murdered the population of a whole village, Lidice. In the spring of 1945, there were death marches of prisoners of several subcamps of the Flossenbürg, Gross-Rosen and Buchenwald concentration camps in Saxony and Silesia, and Allied POWs from camps in Austria reached the region.[31][32][33][34]

In May 1945, Allied

expelled by order of the reestablished Czechoslovak central government, based on the Potsdam Agreement. The Bohemian Germans' property was confiscated by the Czech authorities, and according to contemporary estimates, amounted to a third of the Czechoslovak national income. Germans who were valued for their skills were allowed to stay to pass on their knowledge to the Czech migrants.[24] The expulsion severely depopulated the area, and from then on, locales were called only their Czech names, regardless of their previous demographics. The resettlement of the formerly German-settled areas allowed many poorer people to acquire property, thus "equalizing" Czechoslovak society.[24]

Recent history

The Communist Party won the most votes in free elections, but not a simple majority. Klement Gottwald, the communist leader, became prime minister of a coalition government.

Bohemian city Karlovy Vary

In February 1948, the non-communist members of the government resigned in protest against arbitrary measures by the communists and their Soviet protectors in many of the state's institutions. Gottwald and the communists responded with a coup d'état and installed a pro-Soviet authoritarian state. In 1949, Bohemia ceased to be an administrative unit of Czechoslovakia, as the country was divided into administrative regions that did not follow the historical borders.

In 1989, Agnes of Bohemia became the first saint from a Central European country to be canonized (by Pope John Paul II) before the "Velvet Revolution" later that year.

After the

Senate at the time, remained one of the main advocates of the land system,[38] claiming that the primary reason for its refusal was the fear of possible Moravian separatism.[38]

Bohemia thus remains a historical region, and its administration is divided between Prague and the Central Bohemian, Plzeň, Karlovy Vary, Ústí nad Labem, Liberec, and Hradec Králové regions, as well as most of the Pardubice and South Bohemian region, and parts of the Vysočina and South Moravian regions.[8] In addition to their use in the names of the regions, the historical land names remain in use in names of municipalities, cadastral areas, railway stations[39] and geographical names.[40] The distinction and border between the Czech lands is also preserved in local dialects.

Former parts

Žitava

Piast Eagle
.

In 1945, some 4000 Czechs were registered in Zittau, and formed a Czech National Committee.[43] The Czechs made an attempt to reintegrate the city with Bohemia, and thus Czechoslovakia, but the efforts were decisively rejected in 1948.[43]

A panorama of Zittau

Kladsko

Main article: County of Kladsko

The area around

Nysa Kłodzka River was the focus of several attempts to reincorporate the area into Czechoslovakia, one of several Polish–Czechoslovak border conflicts
.

The last attempt occurred in May 1945, when Czechoslovakia tried to annex the area. The Czechs argued that because of the small

Roman Catholic Church, the area remained part of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Prague
until 1972.

Capitalizing on interest regarding the Kladsko area in the Czech national psyche, a special tourist area in the

Adršpach rocks (Czech
: Adršpašské skály).

A panorama of Kłodzko, the capital city of Kłodzko Land, which is referred to as "Little Prague"

Historical administrative divisions

Lands of the Bohemian Crown (until 1635), map by Josef Pekař, 1921

Kraje of Bohemia during the Kingdom of Bohemia:

See also

References

  1. ^ "Population of Municipalities – 1 January 2024". Czech Statistical Office. 17 May 2024.
  2. ^ "Bohemia" Archived 23 November 2018 at the Wayback Machine. Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary.
  3. ^ There is no distinction in Czech between adjectives referring to Bohemia and to the Czech Republic; i.e. český means both Bohemian and Czech.
  4. ^ The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. 2001–05
  5. ^ The Cambridge Modern History. The Macmillan Company. 1902. p. 331. Archived from the original on 3 October 2023. Retrieved 17 March 2021.
  6. ^ Jiří Pehe: Co vlastně slavíme 28. října? Archived 12 November 2017 at the Wayback Machine
  7. ^ a b "Bohemia". Archived from the original on 20 June 2012. Retrieved 2 June 2012.
  8. ^ a b c Petr Jeřábek: Krajské uspořádání? Vadí i po čtrnácti letech Archived 27 September 2016 at the Wayback Machine, Deník.cz, 2 January 2014, compare maps and texts Archived 27 January 2018 at the Wayback Machine
  9. ^ Ústava České republiky Archived 26 January 2018 at the Wayback Machine, 1/1993 Sb. (Constitution of the Czech Republic)
  10. ^ "Historický lexikon obcí České republiky 1869–2011" (in Czech). Czech Statistical Office. 21 December 2015.
  11. ^ "Results of the 2021 Census - Open data". Public Database (in Czech). Czech Statistical Office. 27 March 2021.
  12. ^
    ISBN 0-7524-2913-2
  13. ^ Pliny 3.146 and Strabo 7.1 290 and 292 Archived 25 February 2021 at the Wayback Machine, but also see 7.2 293 Archived 24 February 2021 at the Wayback Machine
  14. ^ "Tacitus: Germania". Thelatinlibrary.com. Archived from the original on 18 April 2003. Retrieved 19 November 2013.
  15. ISBN 9781843839156, archived
    from the original on 3 October 2023, retrieved 13 September 2020
  16. ISBN 978-1-895571-19-6. Archived
    from the original on 3 October 2023. Retrieved 19 June 2019. The second detail in Constantine's account, which supposedly points to the eastern Carpathians, is his reference to a 'place called Boiki (Boiki)' on the border with the White Serbs; for a long time this was considered – and some consider it still – to be a reference to the Ukrainian Boikos. That is very unlikely, however, because the location is too far east for the Serbs, nor has any indication been found that the name of the Boikos was ever in such wide usage. So all we are left with to suggest the existence of a Rus' Croatia in the Carpathians is the Primary Chronicle ... Published by H. Jireiek, the Karten zur Geschichte (1897) also show the 'Boiki' on the Dnister (map 4). It is more likely that Boiki is a distorted variant of the name Boiohem, or Bohemia, as most scholars now believe...
  17. ^ Gyula Moravcsik, ed. (1949). De administrando imperio. Pázmány Péter Tudományegyetemi Görög Filoĺ́ogiai Intézet. pp. 130–131. Archived from the original on 3 October 2023. Retrieved 19 June 2019. ...should be modern Saxony, where remnants of Serbs (Sorbs) are still living. The name 'Boiki' has been much disputed over by specialists ... has proved that the 'place called Boiki' can only be Bohemia. Grégoire (L'Origine, 98) rejects Skok's proposal to read 'Boioi', and suggests 'Boimi'. C.'s account contains one serious inexactitude: namely, the statement that the Serbs lived 'in a place called by them Boiki'. Although we have documentary proof of the existence of Croats in Bohemia, we have none to suggest that Serbs lived there. Bohemia was in fact another neighbor of White Serbia
  18. ISBN 9789025607487. Archived
    from the original on 3 October 2023. Retrieved 19 June 2019. These, he says, descended from the unbaptized Serbs who were also called "white" and lived in a place called by them "Boiki" (Bohemia)...
  19. ^ Acta archaeologica Carpathica. Państwowe Wydawn. Naukowe. 1999. p. 163. Archived from the original on 3 October 2023. Retrieved 19 June 2019. Wielu spośród nich osiedlili królowie węgierscy u zachodnich granic swego królestwa; morze Ciemne = Bałtyk; Boiki = Bohemia, czyli Czechy...
  20. ^ Slavia antiqua. Vol. 44. Poznań Society of Friends of Learning. 2003. p. 13. Archived from the original on 3 October 2023. Retrieved 19 June 2019. Serbów balkañskich znajdowala siç w kraju zwanym u nich Boiki (Bohemia=Czechy)...
  21. ISBN 80-7021-845-2
    , in Czech
  22. JSTOR 27185958
    .
  23. ^ Arnold Suppan (2008). ""Germans" in the Austrian Empire and in the Monarchy". In Ingrao; Szabo (eds.). The Germans and the East. Purdue University Press. p. 156.
  24. ^ a b c d von Arburg, Adrian. "Abschied und Neubeginn". Als die Deutschen weg waren Was nach der Vertreibung geschah: Ostpreußen, Sudetenland, Schlesien (in German).
  25. ^ Murdock, Caitlin (2010). Changing Places: Society, Culture, and Territory in the Saxon-Bohemian Borderlands, 1870-1946. University of Michigan Press. p. 100.: "Czech political leaders claimed the entire Bohemian crown lands, including majority German-speaking areas, for Czechoslovakia. In the nineteenth century, Czech nationalist activists had used Bohemia’s historical status as an independent kingdom to argue for Bohemian states rights (Staatsrecht/státní pravo) within the Habsburg Empire"
  26. ^ Hans Mommsen; Dušan Kováč; Jiří Malíř, eds. (2001). "Im Widerstreit der Selbstbestimmungsansprüche: Vom Habsburgerstaat zur Tschechoslowakei - die Deutschen der böhmischen Länder 1918 bis 1919". Der Erste Weltkrieg und die Beziehungen zwischen Tschechen, Slowaken, und Deutschen. Klartext. pp. 197–198.: "Schon am 30. Oktober 1918 erreichten den Statsrat erste Meldungen über die teschcische und südslawische Besetzung zweisprachiger Orte entlang der Sprachgrenze. [...] Kaum war der Entschluß zu den Provinzgründungen publik, da begann die tschechische Besetzung von mehrheitlich- oder ausschließlich-deutschen Orten an der Peripherie des deutschen Anspruchsgebiets"
  27. ^ Hans Mommsen; Dušan Kováč; Jiří Malíř, eds. (2001). "Im Widerstreit der Selbstbestimmungsansprüche: vom Habsburgerstaat zur Tschechoslowakei–die Deutschen der böhmischen Länder 1918 bis 1919". Der Erste Weltkrieg und die Beziehungen zwischen Tschechen, Slowaken und Deutschen. Klartext. p. 203.: "Die Ausweitung des Konfliktes zum förmlichen Krieg zwischen Deutschösterreich und der Tschechoslowakei war jedoch mit den gesamtsataatlichen Zielen unvereinbar. Deutschösterreich unterstand den Bedingungen des Wafenstillstandes, während andereseits die Tschehslowakei zu den verbündeten Siegersaaten zählte und daher ihre Armee als Ententeheer laut Waffenstilland Beweungsfreiheit in ganz Österreich-Ungarn genoss
  28. ^ Murdock, Caitlin (2010). Changing Places: Society, Culture, and Territory in the Saxon-Bohemian Borderlands, 1870-1946. University of Michigan Press. p. 103.:"By mid-December, the borderlands were firmly under Czechoslovak control. A Czechoslovak state with the historic borders of the Bohemian crown was a fait accomplit"
  29. ISBN 978-80-87173-47-3
    .
  30. ISBN 978-0-253-06089-1
    .
  31. ^ a b "Subcamps". KZ-Gedenkstätte Flossenbürg. Retrieved 5 November 2023.
  32. ^ a b "Subcamps of KL Groß-Rosen". Gross-Rosen Museum in Rogoźnica. Retrieved 5 November 2023.
  33. ^ "Buchenwald war überall - Projekt »Netzwerk der Außenlager«". aussenlager-buchenwald.de (in German). Retrieved 5 November 2023.
  34. ^ Megargee; Overmans; Vogt, p. 274
  35. ^ "Liberation of Pilsen". Liberation Route Europe. Retrieved 5 November 2023.
  36. ISSN 2543-9839
    .
  37. ^ "Portál veřejné správy". portal.gov.cz. Archived from the original on 28 December 2019.
  38. ^ a b Petr Zídek: Dnešním politikům chybí odvaha, tvrdí Petr Pithart. Z uprchlíků strach nemá Archived 27 September 2016 at the Wayback Machine, Lidovky.cz, 17 October 2015, interview with Petr Pithart
  39. ^ Seznam železničních stanic Archived 27 September 2016 at the Wayback Machine, List of railway stations, České dráhy (Czech railways) – search for "v Čechách" (17×), "na Moravě" (15×), "Český", "České", "Moravský", "Moravské", etc.
  40. ^ Geomorfologické celky ČR Archived 2 May 2016 at the Wayback Machine (Geomorphologic areas of the Czech Republic), KČT Tábor
  41. ^
    ISSN 0948-8294
    .
  42. ^ a b c d Knothe, Hermann (1879). Geschichte des Oberlausitzer Adels und seiner Güter (in German). Leipzig: Breitkopf & Härtel. pp. 546–547, 643.
  43. ^ a b "20. století". Hrádek nad Nisou (in Czech). Retrieved 5 November 2023.
  44. ^ interactive, inCUBE. "Story Landscape – Kladsko Borderland, Glatz Borderlan". www.kladskepomezi.cz. Archived from the original on 3 April 2012. Retrieved 16 September 2014.

Further reading

Wikisource has the text of the Encyclopædia Britannica (9th ed.) article Bohemia.
Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article "Bohemia".
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Bohemia.

50°N 15°E / 50°N 15°E / 50; 15

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