Bolesław I the Brave

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Bolesław I the Brave
Dobrawa of Bohemia
ReligionChalcedonian Christianity

Bolesław I the Brave

Duke of Bohemia between 1003 and 1004 as Boleslaus IV. A member of the ancient Piast dynasty, Bolesław was a capable monarch and a strong mediator in Central European affairs. He continued to proselytise Western Christianity among his subjects and raised Poland to the rank of a kingdom, thus becoming the first Polish ruler to hold the title of rex, Latin
for king.

The son of

Dobrawa of Bohemia, Bolesław ruled Lesser Poland already during the final years of Mieszko's reign. When the country became divided in 992, he banished his father's widow, Oda of Haldensleben, purged his half-brothers along with their adherents and successfully reunified Poland by 995. As a devout Christian, Bolesław supported the missionary endeavours of Adalbert of Prague and Bruno of Querfurt. The martyrdom of Adalbert in 997 and Bolesław's successful attempt to ransom the bishop's remains, paying for their weight in gold, consolidated Poland's autonomy from the Holy Roman Empire
.

At the

Golden Gate. In honour of this legend, the Szczerbiec ("Jagged Sword") would later become the coronation
sword of Polish kings.

Bolesław is widely considered one of Poland's most accomplished

Piast monarchs; he was an able strategist and statesman, who transformed Poland into an entity comparable to older Western monarchies and arguably raised it to the front rank of European states. Bolesław conducted successful military campaigns to the west, south and east of his realm, and conquered territories in modern-day Slovakia, Moravia, Red Ruthenia, Meissen, Lusatia, and Bohemia. He established the "Prince's Law" and sponsored the construction of churches, monasteries, military forts as well as waterway infrastructure. He also introduced the first Polish monetary unit, the grzywna, divided into 240 denarii,[1]
and minted his own coinage.

Early life

Bolesław was born in 966 or 967,

Otto I, Holy Roman Emperor in token of his allegiance to the emperor.[8] However, historian Marek Kazimierz Barański notes that the claim that Bolesław was sent as a hostage to the imperial court is disputed.[9]

Bolesław's mother, Dobrawa, died in 977; his widowed father married

Boleslav II of Bohemia, granted the region to him.[12]

Accession and consolidation

A map depicting Poland
Poland in the year 1000

Mieszko I died on 25 May 992.[13][14] The contemporaneous Thietmar of Merseburg recorded that Mieszko left "his kingdom to be divided among many claimants", but Bolesław unified the country "with fox-like cunning"[15] and expelled his stepmother and half-brothers from Poland.[16][17] Two Polish lords Odilien and Przibiwoj,[18] who had supported her and her sons, were blinded on Bolesław's order.[17] Historian Przemysław Wiszewski says that Bolesław had already taken control of the whole of Poland by 992;[19] Pleszczyński writes that this only happened in the last months of 995.[16]

Bolesław's first coins were issued around 995.

Abodrites or Veleti in 995.[22][23][24] During the campaign, he met the young German monarch, Otto III.[25]

Soběslav, the head of the Bohemian Slavník dynasty, also participated in the 995 campaign.[26] Taking advantage of Soběslav's absence, Boleslav II of Bohemia invaded the Slavníks' domains and had most members of the family murdered.[27] After learning of his kinsmen's fate, Soběslav settled in Poland.[16][28] Bolesław gave shelter to him "for the sake of [Soběslav's] holy brother",[29] Bishop Adalbert of Prague, according to the latter's hagiographies.[30] Adalbert (known as Wojciech before his consecration)[31] also came to Poland in 996, because Bolesław "was quite amicably disposed towards him".[30][32] Adalbert's hagiographies suggest that the bishop and Bolesław closely cooperated.[33] In early 997 Adalbert left Poland to proselytise among the Prussians, who had been invading the eastern borderlands of Bolesław's realm.[24][33] However, the pagans murdered him on 23 April 997.[33] Bolesław ransomed Adalbert's remains, paying its weight in gold, and buried it in Gniezno.[9][33][34] He sent parts of the martyr bishop's corpse to Emperor Otto III who had been Adalbert's friend.[34]

Congress of Gniezno and its aftermath (999–1002)

Main article: Congress of Gniezno
Otto III, Holy Roman Emperor, bestowing a crown upon Bolesław at the Congress of Gniezno. An imaginary depiction from Chronica Polonorum by Maciej Miechowita, c. 1521

Emperor Otto III held a synod in Rome where Adalbert was canonised on the emperor's request on 29 June 999.

Sylvester II's legate, Robert, in early 1000.[37][38] Thietmar of Merseburg mentioned that it "would be impossible to believe or describe"[39] how Bolesław received the emperor and conducted him to Gniezno.[40] A century later, Gallus Anonymus added that "[m]arvelous and wonderful sights Bolesław set before the emperor when he arrived: the ranks first of the knights in all their variety, and then of the princes, lined up on a spacious plain like choirs, each separate unit set apart by the distinct and varied colors of its apparel, and no garment there was of inferior quality, but of the most precious stuff that might anywhere be found."[40][41]

Bolesław took advantage of the emperor's pilgrimage.

St. Maurice"[46] from the Emperor.[37][40]

Wawel Hill, Kraków

Gallus Anonymus claimed that Bolesław was "gloriously raised to kingship by the emperor"

fasts and to refrain from adultery:[50]

If anyone in this land should presume to abuse a foreign matron and thereby commit fornication, the act is immediately avenged through the following punishment. The guilty party is led on to the market bridge, and his scrotum is affixed to it with a nail. Then, after a sharp knife has been placed next to him, he is given the harsh choice between death or castration. Furthermore, anyone found to have eaten meat after Septuagesima is severely punished, by having his teeth knocked out. The law of God, newly introduced in these regions gains more strength from such acts of force than from any fast imposed by the bishops

— Thietmar of Merseburg: Chronicon[51]

During the time the Emperor spent in Poland, Bolesław also showed off his affluence.

drinking-horns, and he presented them to the emperor as a toke of honor ... [h]is servants were likewise told to collect the wall-hangings and the coverlets, the carpets and tablecloths and napkins and everything that had been provided for their needs and take them to the emperor's quarters",[47] according to Gallus Anonymus.[45] Thietmar of Merseburg recorded that Bolesław presented Otto III with a troop of "three hundred armoured warriors".[49][52] Bolesław also gave Saint Adalbert's arm to the Emperor.[49]

After the meeting, Bolesław escorted Otto III to Magdeburg in Germany where "they celebrated Palm Sunday with great festivity"[53] on 25 March 1000.[54] A continuator of the chronicle of Adémar de Chabannes recorded, decades after the events, that Bolesław also accompanied Emperor Otto from Magdeburg to Aachen where Otto III had Charlemagne's tomb reopened and gave Charlemagne's golden throne to Bolesław.[49][55][56]

An illustrated Gospel, made for Otto III around 1000, depicted four women symbolising Roma, Gallia, Germania and Sclavinia as doing homage to the Emperor who sat on his throne.

foederatus of the Holy Roman Empire, according to historian Jerzy Strzelczyk.[57]

Coins struck for Bolesław shortly after his meeting with the emperor bore the inscription Gnezdun Civitas, showing that he regarded Gniezno as his capital.[55] The name of Poland was also recorded on the same coins referring to the Princes Polonie [sic].[55] The title princeps was almost exclusively used in Italy around that time, suggesting that it also represented the Emperor's idea of the renewal of the Roman Empire.[55] However, Otto's premature death on 23 January 1002 put an end to his ambitious plans.[54] The contemporaneous Bruno of Querfurt stated that "nobody lamented" the 22-year-old emperor's "death with greater grief than Bolesław".[58][59]

In 1000 Bolesław issued a law prohibiting hunting beavers[60] and created a office called "Bobrowniczy"[61] whose task was to enforce prince's ordinances.[62]

Expansion (1002–1018)

Poland during the reign of Bolesław the Brave

Three candidates were competing with each other for the German crown after Otto III's death.

Margraviate of Meissen to Bolesław in exchange for his assistance against Eckard I, Margrave of Meissen who was the most powerful contender.[63] However, Eckard was murdered on 30 April 1002, which enabled Henry of Bavaria to defeat his last opponent, Herman II, Duke of Swabia.[63] Fearing that Henry II would side with elements in the German Church hierarchy which were unfavorable towards Poland,[64] and taking advantage of the chaos that followed Margrave Eckard's death and Henry of Bavaria's conflict with Henry of Schweinfurt, Bolesław invaded Lusatia and Meissen.[42][65] He "seized Margrave Gero's march as far as the river Elbe",[66] and also Bautzen, Strehla and Meissen.[67] At the end of July, he participated at a meeting of the Saxon lords where Henry of Bavaria, who had meanwhile been crowned king of Germany, only confirmed Bolesław's possession of Lusatia, and granted Meissen to Margrave Eckard's brother, Gunzelin, and Strehla to Eckard's oldest son, Herman.[68][69] The relationship between King Henry and Bolesław became tense after assassins tried to murder Bolesław in Merseburg, because he accused the king of conspiracy against him.[68][69] In retaliation, he seized and burned Strehla and took the inhabitants of the town into captivity.[68]

A coin depicting a crowned bird on the one side, and a cross on the other side
Bolesław's denarius with the inscription Princes Polonie.

Duke

Boleslaus III of Bohemia was dethroned and the Bohemian lords made Vladivoj, who had earlier fled to Poland, duke in 1002.[68] The Czech historian Dušan Třeštík writes that Vladivoj seized the Bohemian throne with Bolesław's assistance.[70] After Vladivoj died in 1003, Bolesław invaded Bohemia and restored Boleslaus III who had many Bohemian noblemen murdered.[68][71] The Bohemian lords who survived the massacre "secretly sent representatives" to Bolesław, asking "him to rescue them from fear of the future",[72] according to Thietmar of Merseburg.[71] Bolesław invaded Bohemia and had Boleslaus III blinded.[68] He entered Prague in March 1003 where the Bohemian lords proclaimed him duke.[73][74] King Henry sent his envoys to Prague, demanding that Bolesław take an oath of loyalty and pay tribute to him, but Bolesław refused to obey.[69][73] He also allied himself with the king's opponents, including Henry of Schweinfurt to whom he sent reinforcements.[75] King Henry defeated Henry of Schweinfurt, forcing him to flee to Bohemia in August 1003.[76] Bolesław invaded the Margraviate of Meissen, but Margrave Gunzelin refused to surrender his capital.[76] It is also likely that Polish forces took control of Moravia and the northern parts of the Kingdom of Hungary (present-day mostly Slovakia) in 1003 as well. The proper conquest date of the Hungarian territories is 1003 or 1015 and this area stayed a part of Poland until 1018.[77]

King Henry allied himself with the pagan Lutici,[74] and broke into Lusatia in February 1004, but heavy snows forced him to withdraw.[71][76] He invaded Bohemia in August 1004, taking the oldest brother of the blinded Boleslaus III of Bohemia, Jaromír, with him.[76] The Bohemians rose up in open rebellion and murdered the Polish garrisons in the major towns.[76] Bolesław left Prague without resistance, and King Henry made Jaromír duke of Bohemia on 8 September.[76] Bolesław's ally Soběslav died in this campaign.[74]

During the next part of the offensive King Henry retook

newly established local bishopric.[79]

In 1007, after learning about Bolesław's efforts to gain allies among Saxon nobles and giving refuge to the deposed duke of Bohemia,

Emperor Otto II, was also performed.[74] During the brief period of peace on the western frontier that followed, Bolesław took part in a short campaign in the east, towards the Kievan Rus' territories.[74]

Henry II depicted in the Seeon Evangeliary, c. 1014–1024

In 1014, Bolesław sent his son Mieszko to Bohemia in order to form an alliance with Duke

Gero II of Meissen was defeated and killed during a clash with the Polish forces in late 1015.[81][82] In 1015 and 1017, Bolesław I attacked the Eastern March and was defeated twice by Henry the Strong and his forces.[83][84]

Later that year, Bolesław's son Mieszko was sent to plunder

Eckard I of Meissen. The wedding took place four days later, on 3 February in the castle of Cziczani (also Sciciani, at the site of either modern Groß-Seitschen[87] or Zützen).[88]

War in Kiev (1018)

Main article: Bolesław I's intervention in the Kievan succession crisis

Bolesław organised his first expedition east, to support his son-in-law

Red Strongholds, later called Red Ruthenia, lost by Bolesław's father in 981.[89]

Last years (1019–1025)

Main article: Crown of Bolesław I the Brave
Coronation of the First King, as imagined by Jan Matejko

Historians dispute the exact date of Bolesław's

Easter Sunday[99] although Tadeusz Wojciechowski believes that the coronation took place prior to that, on 24 December 1024.[100] The basis for this assertion is that the coronations of kings were usually held during religious festivities.[101] The exact place of the coronation is also highly debated, with the cathedrals of Gniezno or Poznań being the most probable locations.[102] Poland was thereafter raised to the rank of a kingdom before its neighbour, Bohemia.[103]

Wipo of Burgundy in his chronicle describes the event:

[In 1025] Boleslaus [of the Slavic nation], duke of the Poles, took for himself in injury to King Conrad the regal insignia and the royal name. Death swiftly killed his temerity.

— Wipo: The Deeds of Conrad II[104]

It is widely believed that Bolesław had to receive permission for his coronation from the newly-elected Pope John XIX.[105] John was known to be corrupt, and it is likely that consent was or may have been obtained through bribes.[106] However, Rome also hoped for a potential alliance to defend itself from Byzantine Emperor Basil II, who launched a military expedition to recover the island of Sicily and could subsequently threaten the Papal States from the south.[106] Stanisław Zakrzewski put forward the theory that the coronation had the tacit consent of Conrad II and that the pope only confirmed that fact.[107] That is corroborated by Conrad's confirmation of the royal title to Mieszko II, his agreement with the counts of Tusculum and the papal interactions with Conrad and Bolesław.[108]

Death and burial

Tomb of Bolesław and his father, Mieszko, inside the Golden Chapel at Poznań Cathedral

According to

Archcathedral Basilica of St. Peter and St. Paul in Poznań.[111] In the 14th century, Casimir III the Great reportedly ordered the construction of a new, presumably Gothic, sarcophagus to which he transferred Bolesław's remains.[112]

The medieval sarcophagus was partially damaged on 30 September 1772 during a fire, and completely destroyed in 1790 due to the collapse of the southern tower.[113] Bolesław's remains were subsequently excavated from the rubble and moved to the cathedral's chapter house.[113] Three bone fragments were donated to Tadeusz Czacki in 1801, at his request.[113] Czacki, a notable Polish historian, pedagogue, and numismatist, placed one of the bone fragments in his ancestral mausoleum in Poryck (now Pavlivka) in the Volhynia region; the other two were given to Princess Izabela Flemming Czartoryska, who placed them in her recently founded Czartoryski Museum in Puławy.

After many historical twists, the burial place of Bolesław I ultimately remained at Poznań Cathedral, in the Golden Chapel.[114] The content of his epitaph is known to historians. It is Bolesław's epitaph, which, in part, came from the original tombstone, that is one of the first sources (dated to the period immediately after Bolesław's death, probably during the reign of Mieszko II)[115] that gave the King his widely known nickname of "Brave" (Polish: Chrobry). Later, Gallus Anonymus, in Chapter 6 of his Gesta principum Polonorum, named the Polish ruler as Bolezlavus qui dicebatur Gloriosus seu Chrabri.

Family

Monument to Bolesław the Brave in Gniezno, created by Marcin Rożek in 1925. Destroyed in 1939 and reconstructed in 1985 by Jerzy Sobociński.
10-złotych coin with Bolesław Chrobry (1925)

The contemporaneous

Margrave of Meissen.[9][116] Historian Manteuffel says that the marriage was arranged in the early 980s by Mieszko I who wanted to strengthen his links with the Saxon lords and to enable his son to succeed Rikdag in Meissen.[117] Bolesław "later sent her away",[18] according to Thietmar's Chronicon.[116] Historian Marek Kazimierz Barański writes that Bolesław repudiated his first wife after her father's death in 985 which left the marriage without any political value.[9]

Bolesław "took a Hungarian woman"[18] as his second wife.[116] Most historians identify her as a daughter of the Hungarian ruler Géza, but this theory has not been universally accepted.[118] She gave birth to a son, Bezprym, but Bolesław repudiated her.[116]

Bolesław's third wife,

Liudolfing dynasty,[22] or the last independent prince of the Vistulans, before their incorporation into Poland.[9] Wiszewski dates the marriage of Bolesław and Emnilda to 988.[3] Emnilda exerted a beneficial influence on Bolesław, reforming "her husband's unstable character",[18] according to Thietmar of Merseburg's report.[116] Bolesław's and Emnilda's oldest (unnamed) daughter "was an abbess"[18] of an unidentified abbey.[3] Their second daughter Regelinda, who was born in 989, was given in marriage to Herman I, Margrave of Meissen in 1002 or 1003.[3] Mieszko II Lambert who was born in 990[119] was Bolesław's favorite son and successor.[120] The name of Bolesław's and Emnilda's third daughter, who was born in 995, is unknown; she married Sviatopolk I of Kiev between 1005 and 1012.[3] Bolesław's youngest son, Otto, was born in 1000.[3]

Bolesław's fourth marriage, from 1018 until his death, was to

Eckard I of Meissen. They had a daughter, Matilda (c. 1018–1036), betrothed (or married) on 18 May 1035 to Otto of Schweinfurt
.

Predslava, a daughter of

Rogneda
, whom, along with her sister Mstislava, he had taken from Kiev in 1018, was his concubine.

Marriages and Issue:

Oda/Hunilda?, daughter of Rikdag

Unknown Hungarian woman (sometimes identified as Judith of Hungary):

  1. Bezprym (c. 986–1032) – became Duke of Poland

Emnilda, daughter of Dobromir:

  1. Unknown abbess of an unidentified abbey
  2. Regelinda (c. 989 – 21 March aft. 1014), married Herman I, Margrave of Meissen becoming Margravine of Meissen
  3. Mieszko II Lambert (c. 990 – 10/11 May 1034), became king and subsequent to his dethronement, regained power as duke of Poland
  4. Unknown daughter, married Grand Prince Sviatopolk I of Kiev and became Grand Princess of Kiev
  5. Otto Bolesławowic (c. 1000–1033)

Oda of Meissen

  1. Matilda (c. 1018–1036), betrothed to Otto of Schweinfurt but the marriage was rejected.

Gallery

  • Portrait of Boleslaus I the Brave by Marcello Baciarelli, c. 1770
    Portrait of Boleslaus I the Brave by
    Marcello Baciarelli
    , c. 1770
  • Boleslaus I of Poland, a drawing by Jan Matejko, c. 1890
    Boleslaus I of Poland, a drawing by Jan Matejko, c. 1890
  • Boleslaus I the Brave by Aleksander Lesser
    Boleslaus I the Brave by Aleksander Lesser
  • Boleslaus on a postage stamp, 1938
    Boleslaus on a postage stamp, 1938

See also

Notes

  1. Latin
    : Boleslaus I rex Poloniae
  2. ^ Polish: Bolesław Wielki

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  111. ^ Wiszewski 2010, pp. 471–472.
  112. ^ Wiszewski 2010, p. 56.
  113. ^ a b c Nungovitch 2019, p. 98.
  114. ^ Michał Rożek, Adam Bujak: Nekropolie królów i książąt polskich, Warsaw 1988, pp. 12–14.
  115. ^ Przemysław Wiszewski: Domus Bolezlai. W poszukiwaniu tradycji dynastycznej Piastów (do około 1138 roku), Wrocław 2008, p. 62.
  116. ^ a b c d e f g Wiszewski 2010, p. 39.
  117. ^ Manteuffel 1982, p. 53.
  118. ^ Wiszewski 2010, p. 376.
  119. ^ Wiszewski 2010, p. XLIII.
  120. ^ Manteuffel 1982, pp. 77–78.

Sources

Primary sources

Secondary sources

External links
Bolesław I the Brave
Piast Dynasty
Born: 966 or 967 Died: 17 June 1025
Preceded by
Duke of the Polans

992 – 1025 		Succeeded by
New title
King of Poland

1025
Preceded by Margrave of Saxon Eastern March
1002–1025
Preceded by
Vladivoj
Duke of Bohemia

1003–1004 		Succeeded by
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