Bolesław Prus

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Bolesław Prus
1887 photograph
1887 photograph
BornAleksander Głowacki
(1847-08-20)20 August 1847
Hrubieszów, Congress Poland
Died19 May 1912(1912-05-19) (aged 64)
Warsaw, Congress Poland
Pen nameBolesław Prus
OccupationNovelist, journalist, short-story writer
NationalityPolish
Period1872–1912
Genre
Literary movement
Positivism
SpouseOktawia Głowacka, née Trembińska
ChildrenEmil Trembiński (adopted)
Signature

Aleksander Głowacki (20 August 1847 – 19 May 1912), better known by his pen name Bolesław Prus (Polish: [bɔˈlεswaf ˈprus] ⓘ), was a Polish novelist, a leading figure in the history of Polish literature and philosophy, as well as a distinctive voice in world literature.[1][2]

As a 15-year-old, Aleksander Głowacki joined the Polish

Imperial Russia. Shortly after his 16th birthday, he suffered severe battle injuries. Five months later, he was imprisoned for his part in the Uprising. These early experiences may have precipitated the panic disorder and agoraphobia
that dogged him through life, and shaped his opposition to attempting to regain Poland's independence by force of arms.

In 1872, at the age of 25, in Warsaw, he settled into a 40-year journalistic career that highlighted science, technology, education, and economic and cultural development. These societal enterprises were essential to the endurance of a people who had in the 18th century been partitioned out of political existence by Russia, Prussia and Austria. Głowacki took his pen name "Prus" from the appellation of his family's coat-of-arms.

As a sideline, he wrote short stories. Succeeding with these, he went on to employ a larger canvas; over the decade between 1884 and 1895, he completed four major novels:

20th Dynasty and New Kingdom
.

Life

Early years

Prus's Hrubieszów birthplace
Lublin Castle, Prus's prison during 1863–65 Uprising

Aleksander Głowacki was born 20 August 1847 in Hrubieszów, now in southeastern Poland, very near the present-day border with Ukraine. The town was then in the Russian-controlled sector of partitioned Poland, known as the "Congress Kingdom". Aleksander was the younger son of Antoni Głowacki, an estate steward at the village of Żabcze, in Hrubieszów County, and Apolonia Głowacka (née Trembińska).[3]

In 1850, when the future Bolesław Prus was three years old, his mother died; the child was placed in the care of his maternal grandmother, Marcjanna Trembińska of

Maria Skłodowska-Curie,[4] administered canings (a customary mode of disciplining) to wayward pupils, including the spirited Aleksander.[5]

In 1862, Prus's brother, Leon, a teacher thirteen years his senior, took him to Siedlce, then to Kielce.[6]

Soon after the outbreak of the Polish

Imperial Russia, 15-year-old Prus ran away from school to join the insurgents.[7] He may have been influenced by his brother Leon, one of the Uprising's leaders. Leon, during a June 1863 mission to Wilno (now Vilnius) in Lithuania for the Polish insurgent government, developed a debilitating mental illness that would end only with his death in 1907.[8]

On 1 September 1863, twelve days after his sixteenth birthday, Prus took part in a battle against Russian forces at a village called Białka, four kilometers south of

contusions to the neck and gunpowder injuries to his eyes, and was captured unconscious on the battlefield and taken to hospital in Siedlce.[9] This experience may have caused his subsequent lifelong agoraphobia.[10]

Warsaw University
student

Five months later, in early February 1864, Prus was arrested and imprisoned at Lublin Castle for his role in the Uprising. In early April a military court sentenced him to forfeiture of his nobleman's status and resettlement on imperial lands. On 30 April, however, the Lublin District military head credited Prus's time spent under arrest and, on account of the 16-year-old's youth, decided to place him in the custody of his uncle Klemens Olszewski. On 7 May, Prus was released and entered the household of Katarzyna Trembińska, a relative and the mother of his future wife, Oktawia Trembińska.[11]

Prus enrolled at a Lublin gymnasium (secondary school), the still functioning prestigious Stanisław Staszic School, founded in 1586. Graduating on 30 June 1866, at nineteen he matriculated in the Warsaw University Department of Mathematics and Physics.[12] In 1868, poverty forced him to break off his university studies.[7]

In 1869, he enrolled in the Forestry Department at the newly opened Agriculture and Forestry Institute in Puławy, a historic town where he had spent some of his childhood and which, 15 years later, was the setting for his striking 1884 micro-story, "Mold of the Earth", comparing human history with the mutual aggressions of blind, mindless colonies of molds that cover a boulder adjacent to the Temple of the Sibyl. In January 1870, after only three months at the Institute, Prus was expelled for his insufficient deference toward the martinet Russian-language instructor.[12]

Henceforth he studied on his own while supporting himself mainly as a tutor. As part of his program of self-education, he translated and summarized John Stuart Mill's A System of Logic.

In 1872, he embarked on a career as a newspaper

Evans, Lilpop and Rau Machine and Agricultural Implement Works in Warsaw.[13] In 1873, Prus delivered two public lectures which illustrate the breadth of his scientific interests: "On the Structure of the Universe", and "On Discoveries and Inventions."[14]

Columnist

Prus

As a newspaper

H.G. Wells;[17] and extolled man-made and natural wonders such as the Wieliczka Salt Mine,[18] an 1887 solar eclipse that he witnessed at Mława,[19] planned building of the Eiffel Tower for the 1889 Paris Exposition,[20] and Nałęczów, where he vacationed for 30 years.[21]

His "Weekly Chronicles" spanned forty years (they have since been reprinted in twenty volumes) and helped prepare the ground for the 20th-century blossoming of Polish science and especially mathematics.[a] "Our national life," wrote Prus, "will take a normal course only when we have become a useful, indispensable element of civilization, when we have become able to give nothing for free and to demand nothing for free."[23] The social importance of science and technology recurred as a theme in his novels The Doll (1889)[24] and Pharaoh (1895).[25]

Of contemporary thinkers, the one who most influenced Prus and other writers of the Polish "

historical novel, Pharaoh.[28]

After Prus began writing regular weekly newspaper columns, his finances stabilized, permitting him on 14 January 1875 to marry a distant cousin on his mother's side, Oktawia Trembińska. She was the daughter of Katarzyna Trembińska, in whose home he had lived, after release from prison, for two years from 1864 to 1866 while completing secondary school.[29] The couple adopted a boy, Emil Trembiński (born 11 September 1886, the son of Prus's brother-in-law Michał Trembiński, who had died on 10 November 1888).[30] Emil was the model for Rascal in chapter 48 of Prus's 1895 novel, Pharaoh.[31] On 18 February 1904, aged seventeen, Emil fatally shot himself in the chest on the doorstep of an unrequited love.[32][33]

It has been alleged that in 1906, aged 59, Prus had a son, Jan Bogusz Sacewicz. The boy's mother was Alina Sacewicz, widow of Dr. Kazimierz Sacewicz, a socially conscious physician whom Prus had known at Nałęczów. Dr. Sacewicz may have been the model for Stefan Żeromski's Dr. Judym in the novel, Ludzie bezdomni (Homeless People)—a character resembling Dr. Stockman in Henrik Ibsen's play, An Enemy of the People.[34] Prus, known for his affection for children, took a lively interest in little Jan, as attested by a prolific correspondence with Jan's mother (whom Prus attempted to interest in writing). Jan Sacewicz became one of Prus's major legatees and an engineer, and died in a German camp after the suppression of the Warsaw Uprising of August–October 1944.[35]

pen-name
"Bolesław Prus"

Though Prus was a gifted writer, initially best known as a humorist, he early on thought little of his journalistic and literary work. Hence at the inception of his career in 1872, at the age of 25, he adopted for his newspaper columns and fiction the

coat-of-arms), reserving his actual name, Aleksander Głowacki, for "serious" writing.[36]

An 1878 incident illustrates the strong feelings that can be aroused in susceptible readers of newspaper columns. Prus had criticized the rowdy behavior of some Warsaw university students at a lecture about the poet Wincenty Pol. The students demanded that Prus retract what he had written. He refused, and, on 26 March 1878, several of them surrounded him outside his home, where he had returned shortly before in the company (for his safety) of two fellow writers; one of the students, Jan Sawicki, slapped Prus's face.[37] Police were summoned, but Prus declined to press charges.[38]

Seventeen years later, during his 1895 visit to

Marie Skłodowska Curie's sister who 19 years later, in 1914, scolded Joseph Conrad for writing his novels and stories in English, rather than in Polish for the benefit of Polish culture[39]).[40]
These curiously interlinked incidents involving the Dłuskis and the two authors perhaps illustrate the contemporary intensity of aggrieved Polish national pride.

In 1882, on the recommendation of an earlier editor-in-chief, the prophet of

columns.[41][42] He continued working as a journalist to the end of his life, well after he had achieved success as an author of short stories and novels.[43]

In an 1884 newspaper column, published two decades before the Wright brothers flew, Prus anticipated that powered flight would not bring humanity closer to universal comity: "Are there among flying creatures only doves, and no hawks? Will tomorrow's flying machine obey only the honest and the wise, and not fools and knaves?... The expected societal changes may come down to a new form of chase and combat in which the man who is vanquished on high will fall and smash the skull of the peaceable man down below."[44]

In a January 1909 column, Prus discussed

western Slavs—the Poles, Czechs and Slovaks. The latter peoples, along with the Hungarians and six other countries, did in fact join the European Union in 2004.[17]

Fiction

Prus, by Holewiński. Frontispiece to first book edition of The Doll, 1890.

In time, Prus adopted the French Positivist critic Hippolyte Taine's concept of the arts, including literature, as a second means, alongside the sciences, of studying reality,[45][46] and he devoted more attention to his sideline of short-story writer. Prus's stories, which met with great acclaim, owed much to the literary influence of Polish novelist Józef Ignacy Kraszewski and, among English-language writers, to Charles Dickens and Mark Twain.[47] His fiction was also influenced by French writers Victor Hugo, Gustave Flaubert, Alphonse Daudet and Émile Zola.[48]

Prus wrote several dozen stories, originally published in newspapers and ranging in length from

populace rather than those of the Romantic heroes of an earlier generation. The literary period in which Prus wrote was ostensibly a prosaic one, by contrast with the poetry of the Romantics; but Prus's prose is often a poetic prose. His stories also often contain elements of fantasy or whimsy. A fair number originally appeared in New Year's issues of newspapers.[50]

Prus long eschewed writing

historical novelists for their lapses in historical accuracy, including Henryk Sienkiewicz's failure, in the military scenes in his Trilogy portraying 17th-century Polish history, to describe the logistics of warfare. It was only in 1888, when Prus was forty, that he wrote his first historical fiction, the stunning short story, "A Legend of Old Egypt." This story, a few years later, served as a preliminary sketch for his only historical novel, Pharaoh (1895).[51][52]

Eventually Prus composed four

political power. The work of greatest sweep and most universal appeal is Pharaoh.[54] Prus's novels, like his stories, were originally published in newspaper serialization.[55]

After having sold Pharaoh to the publishing firm of Gebethner and Wolff, Prus embarked, on 16 May 1895, on a four-month journey abroad. He visited Berlin, Dresden, Karlsbad, Nuremberg, Stuttgart and Rapperswil. At the latter Swiss town he stayed two months (July–August), nursing his agoraphobia and spending much time with his friends, the promising young writer Stefan Żeromski and his wife Oktawia. The couple sought Prus's help for the Polish National Museum, housed in the Rapperswil Castle, where Żeromski was librarian.[56]

The final stage of Prus's journey took him to

Seine River to visit the city's southern Left Bank.[56] He was nevertheless pleased to find that his descriptions of Paris in The Doll had been on the mark (he had based them mainly on French-language publications).[57] From Paris, he hurried home to recuperate at Nałęczów from his journey, the last that he made abroad.[58]

Later years

Portrait by Antoni Kamieński, 1897, celebrating Prus's 25 years as journalist and fiction writer
National Museum, Warsaw

Over the years, Prus lent his support to many charitable and social causes, but there was one event he came to rue for the broad criticism it brought him: his participation in welcoming Russia's

political parties, as this might compromise his journalistic objectivity. His associations, by design and temperament, were with individuals and select worthy causes rather than with large groups.[60]

The disastrous

Imperial Russia experienced defeat in the Russo-Japanese War and Poles demanded autonomy and reforms. On 20 December 1905, in the first issue of a short-lived periodical, Młodość (Youth), he published an article, "Oda do młodości" ("Ode to Youth"), whose title harked back to an 1820 poem by Adam Mickiewicz. Prus wrote, in reference to his earlier position on revolution and strikes: "with the greatest pleasure, I admit it—I was wrong!"[61]

Prus's tomb at Warsaw's Powązki Cemetery, designed by his nephew, Stanisław Jackowski

In 1908, Prus serialized, in the Warsaw Tygodnik Ilustrowany (Illustrated Weekly), his novel Dzieci (Children), depicting the young revolutionaries, terrorists and anarchists of the day — an uncharacteristically humorless work. Three years later a final novel, Przemiany (Changes), was to have been, like The Doll, a panorama of society and its vital concerns. However, in 1911 and 1912, the novel had barely begun serialization in the Illustrated Weekly when its composition was cut short by Prus's death.[62]

Neither of the two late novels, Children or Changes, is generally regarded as part of the essential Prus canon, and Czesław Miłosz has called Children one of Prus's weakest works.[63]

Prus's last novel to meet with popular acclaim was

Twentieth Dynasty and New Kingdom three thousand years earlier, Pharaoh had also reflected Poland's loss of independence a century before in 1795[64]—an independence whose post-World War I
restoration Prus did not live to see.

On 19 May 1912, in his Warsaw apartment at 12 Wolf Street (ulica Wilcza 12), near

Triple Cross Square, his forty-year journalistic and literary career came to an end when the 64-year-old author died.[65]

The beloved

Triple Cross Square (Plac Trzech Krzyży) and his interment at Powązki Cemetery.[67]

Prus's tomb was designed by his nephew, the noted sculptor Stanisław Jackowski. On three sides it bears, respectively, the novelist's name, Aleksander Głowacki, his years of birth and death, and his pen name, Bolesław Prus. The epitaph on the fourth side, “Serce Serc” (“Heart of Hearts”), was deliberately borrowed from the Latin “Cor Cordium” on the grave of the English Romantic poet Percy Bysshe Shelley in Rome's Protestant Cemetery.[68][69] Below the epitaph stands the figure of a little girl embracing the tomb — a figure emblematic of Prus's well-known empathy and affection for children.[70][71]

Prus's widow, Oktawia Głowacka, survived him by twenty-four years, dying on 25 October 1936.[72]

In 1902 the editor of the Warsaw Kurier Codzienny (Daily Courier) had opined that, if Prus's writings had been well known abroad, he should have received one of the recently created Nobel Prizes.[73]

Legacy

Kazimierz Palace
, commemorating 1866–68 student Bolesław Prus

On 3 December 1961, nearly half a century after Prus's death, a museum devoted to him was opened in the 18th-century Małachowski Palace at Nałęczów, near Lublin in eastern Poland. Outside the palace is a sculpture of Prus seated on a bench. Another statuary monument to Prus at Nałęczów, sculpted by Alina Ślesińska, was unveiled on 8 May 1966.[74] It was at Nałęczów that Prus vacationed for thirty years from 1882 until his death, and that he met the young Stefan Żeromski. Prus stood witness at Żeromski's 1892 wedding and generously helped foster the younger man's literary career.[75]

While Prus espoused a

positivist and realist outlook, much in his fiction shows qualities compatible with pre-1863-Uprising Polish Romantic literature. Indeed, he held the Polish Romantic poet Adam Mickiewicz in high regard.[76] Prus's novels in turn, especially The Doll and Pharaoh, with their innovative composition techniques, blazed the way for the 20th-century Polish novel.[77]

Prus's novel The Doll, with its rich realistic detail and simple, functional language, was considered by Czesław Miłosz to be the great Polish novel.[78]

The New Woman "as a whole... an artistic failure..."[81] Zygmunt Szweykowski similarly faulted The New Woman's loose, tangential construction; but this, in his view, was partly redeemed by Prus's humor and by some superb episodes, while "The tragedy of Mrs. Latter and the picture of [the town of] Iksinów are among the peak achievements of [Polish] novel-writing."[82]

political power, became the favorite novel of Soviet dictator Joseph Stalin, prefigured the fate of U.S. President John F. Kennedy, and continues to point analogies to more recent times.[83] Pharaoh is often described as Prus's "best-composed novel"[84]—indeed, "one of the best-composed [of all] Polish novels."[85] This was due in part to Pharaoh having been composed complete prior to newspaper serialization, rather than being written in installments just before printing, as was the case with Prus's earlier major novels.[86]

The Doll and Pharaoh are available in English versions.

television miniseries (Lalka, directed by Ryszard Ber). Pharaoh was adapted into a 1966 feature film
.

Between 1897 and 1899 Prus serialized in the Warsaw Daily Courier (Kurier Codzienny) a monograph on The Most General Life Ideals (Najogólniejsze ideały życiowe), which systematized ethical ideas that he had developed over his career regarding happiness, utility and perfection in the lives of individuals and societies.[88] In it he returned to the society-organizing (i.e., political) interests that had been frustrated during his Nowiny editorship fifteen years earlier. A book edition appeared in 1901 (2nd, revised edition, 1905). This work, rooted in Jeremy Bentham's Utilitarian philosophy and Herbert Spencer's view of society-as-organism, retains interest especially for philosophers and social scientists.[89]

Another of Prus's learned projects remained incomplete at his death. He had sought, over his writing career, to develop a coherent theory of literary composition. Notes of his from 1886 to 1912 were never put together into a finished book as he had intended.

combinatorial calculations of the millions of potential "individual types" of human characters, given a stated number of "individual traits."[92]

A curious

head trauma—Prus in 1863 in the Polish 1863–65 Uprising; Bierce in 1864 in the American Civil War. Each experienced false starts in other occupations, and at twenty-five became a journalist for the next forty years; failed to sustain a career as editor-in-chief; achieved celebrity as a short-story writer; lost a son in tragic circumstances (Prus, an adopted son; Bierce, both his sons); attained superb humorous effects by portraying human egoism (Prus especially in Pharaoh, Bierce in The Devil's Dictionary); was dogged from early adulthood by a health problem (Prus, agoraphobia; Bierce, asthma); and died within two years of the other (Prus in 1912; Bierce presumably in 1914). Prus, however, unlike Bierce, went on from short stories to write novels.[93]

Over twice-lifesize Prus statue on Warsaw's Krakowskie Przedmieście
1936 plaque, Holy Cross Church, Warsaw, by Prus's nephew Stanisław Jackowski
"2012: Year of Prus": poster commemorating 100th anniversary of Prus's death, in a window of the Polish Academy of Sciences, Krakowskie Przedmieście, Warsaw, 2012

In Prus' lifetime and since, his contributions to Polish literature and culture have been memorialized without regard to the nature of the political system prevailing at the time. His 50th birthday, in 1897, was marked by special newspaper issues celebrating his 25 years as a journalist and fiction writer, and a portrait of him was commissioned from artist Antoni Kamieński.[94]

The town where Prus was born, Hrubieszów, near the present Polish–Ukrainian border, is graced by an outdoor sculpture of him.

A 1982 plaque on

Kazimierz Palace, commemorates Prus' years at the University in 1866–68. Across the street (Krakowskie Przedmieście) from the University, in Holy Cross Church, adjacent to the pillar that holds Chopin's heart, a 1936 plaque by Prus' nephew Stanisław Jackowski, featuring Prus' profile, is dedicated to the memory of the "great writer and teacher of the nation."[95]

On the front of Warsaw's present-day ulica Wilcza 12, the site of Prus' last home, is a plaque commemorating the earlier, now-nonexistent building's most famous resident. A few hundred meters from there, ulica Bolesława Prusa (Bolesław Prus Street) debouches into the southeast corner of Warsaw's

Triple Cross Square. In this square stands St. Alexander's Church, where Prus' funeral was held.[96]

In 1937, plaques were installed at Warsaw's Krakowskie Przedmieście 4 and 7, where the two chief characters of Prus' novel The Doll, Stanisław Wokulski and Ignacy Rzecki, respectively, were deduced to have resided.[97] On the same street, in a park adjacent to the Hotel Bristol, near the site of a newspaper for which Prus wrote, stands a twice-life-size statue of Prus, sculpted in 1977 by Anna Kamieńska-Łapińska;[98] it is some 12 feet tall, on a minimal pedestal as befits an author who walked the same ground with his fellow men.

Consonant with Prus' interest in commerce and technology, a Polish Ocean Lines freighter has been named for him.[99]

For 10 years, from 1975 to 1984, Poles honored Prus' memory with a 10-

zloty coin featuring his profile. In 2012, to mark the 100th anniversary of his death, the Polish mint produced three coins with individual designs: in gold, silver, and an aluminum-zinc alloy.[100]

Prus' fiction and nonfiction writings continue relevant in our time.[101]

Works

Following is a chronological list of notable works by Bolesław Prus. Translated titles are given, followed by original titles and dates of publication.

The Outpost (Placówka, 1885–86) book edition

Novels

  • Souls in Bondage (Dusze w niewoli, written 1876, serialized 1877)
  • Fame (Sława, begun 1885, never finished)
  • The Outpost (Placówka, 1885–86)
  • The Doll (Lalka, 1887–89)
  • The New Woman
     (Emancypantki, 1890–93)
  • Pharaoh (Faraon, written 1894–95; serialized 1895–96; published in book form 1897)
  • Children (Dzieci, 1908; approximately the first nine chapters had originally appeared, in a somewhat different form, in 1907 as Dawn [Świt])
  • Changes (Przemiany, begun 1911–12; unfinished)

Stories

Nonfiction

Translations

Prus, drawn by his friend Stanisław Witkiewicz, 1887

Prus's writings have been translated into many languages — his

historical novel Pharaoh, into twenty-three; his contemporary novel The Doll, into twenty-eight. Works by Prus have been rendered into Croatian by a member of the Croatian Academy of Sciences and Arts, Stjepan Musulin
.

Film versions

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Prus was not alone in advocating the development of science and technology. It was part of the spirit of the times. The great Polish mathematician Kazimierz Kuratowski writes that in the period when Poland was under complete foreign rule (1795–1918) "It was a common belief that the cultivation of science and the growth of its potential would somehow guarantee the [survival] of the [Polish] nation."[22]
  2. ^ In 1890 Prus wrote: "When I was starting out as a writer, I wrote in part instinctively, in part by inadvertent imitation. My productions were a collection of haphazard observations, put together no doubt against the backdrop of what I had read. Every beginning author does the same. To be sure, this kind of work was to me a great mortification. [...] Then I began asking older authors, and they told me that 'there are no rules, nor can there be any, for the art of novel-writing.' [...] Then [about 1880], brought to desperation, I set about trying to resolve for myself the question: 'Can literary art be reduced to general rules?' After several years of observing and thinking, the matter began to get clearer for me, and as early as August 1886 I set down my first notes [...] and, God willing, I hope to publish a scientific theory of literary art. I expect that it will contain some fairly new things."[91]

References

Citations

  1. ISBN 978-0-520-04477-7
    .
  2. the period
    was Bolesław Prus...
  3. ^ Krystyna Tokarzówna, Stanisław Fita, Bolesław Prus, 1847–1912: Kalendarz życia i twórczości (Bolesław Prus, 1847–1912: a Calendar of His Life and Work), ed. Zygmunt Szweykowski, Warsaw, Państwowy Instytut Wydawniczy, 1969, p. 12.
  4. ^ Robert Reid, Marie Curie, p. 12.
  5. ISBN 978-83-240-4543-3
    , pp. 49–50.
  6. ^ Pieścikowski, Edward. Bolesław Prus. pp. 146–47.
  7. ^ a b Pieścikowski, Edward, Bolesław Prus, p. 147.
  8. ^ Pieścikowski, Edward, Bolesław Prus, p. 165.
  9. ^ Tokarzówna, Krystyna; Stanisław Fita. Bolesław Prus, 1847–1912: Kalendarz życia i twórczości. pp. 45–46.
  10. ^ Fita, Stanisław, ed. (1962). Wspomnienia o Bolesławie Prusie (Reminiscences about Bolesław Prus). p. 113.
  11. ^ Krystyna Tokarzówna and Stanisław Fita, Bolesław Prus, 1847–1912, pp. 51–52.
  12. ^ a b Pieścikowski, Edward. Bolesław Prus. p. 147.
  13. ^ Edward Pieścikowski, Bolesław Prus, pp. 19, 148.
  14. ^ Edward Pieścikowski, Bolesław Prus, p. 148.
  15. passim
    .
  16. ^ a b Krystyna Tokarzówna and Stanisław Fita, Bolesław Prus, 1847–1912: Kalendarz życia i twórczości (Bolesław Prus, 1847–1912: A Calendar of His Life and Work), passim.
  17. ^ a b Kasparek, Christopher (2003). "A Futurological Note: Prus on H.G. Wells and the Year 2000". The Polish Review. 48 (1): 94.
  18. ^ Kasparek, Christopher (1997). "Prus' Pharaoh and the Wieliczka Salt Mine". The Polish Review. 42 (3): 349–55.
  19. ^ Kasparek, Christopher (1997). "Prus' Pharaoh and the Solar Eclipse". The Polish Review. 42 (4): 471–78.
  20. ^ Bolesław Prus, "Wieża paryska" ("The Paris Tower"), in Kurier Warszawski (Warsaw Courier), no. 59, 1887.
  21. ^ Bolesław Prus, "Z Nałęczowa" ("From Nałęczów"), in Kurier Codzienny (Daily Courier), no. 237, 1894.
  22. ISBN 0-08-023046-6
    .
  23. ^ Pieścikowski, Edward. Bolesław Prus. p. 49.
  24. ^ Zygmunt Szweykowski, Twórczość Bolesława Prusa (The Creative Writing of Bolesław Prus), pp. 170–71.
  25. ^ Christopher Kasparek, "Prus' Pharaoh: Primer on Power", The Polish Review, vol. XL, no. 3, 1995, p. 332.
  26. ^ Zygmunt Szweykowski, Twórczość Bolesława Prusa (The Art of Bolesław Prus), p. 22.
  27. ^ Zygmunt Szweykowski, Twórczość Bolesława Prusa (The Art of Bolesław Prus), pp. 32–33.
  28. ^ Christopher Kasparek, "Prus' Pharaoh: the Creation of a Historical Novel", The Polish Review, 1994, no. 1, p. 49.
  29. ^ After Prus's death in 1912, she survived him until her own death on 25 October 1936. Tadeusz Hiż, "Godzina u pani Oktawii" ("An Hour at Oktawia Głowacka's"), in the book Wspomnienia o Bolesławie Prusie, 281.
  30. ^ Tokarzówna, Krystyna; Stanisław Fita. Bolesław Prus, 1847–1912: Kalendarz życia i twórczości, 387.
  31. ^ Tokarzówna, Krystyna; Stanisław Fita. Bolesław Prus, 1847–1912: Kalendarz życia i twórczości. p. 605.
  32. ^ Tokarzówna, Krystyna; Stanisław Fita. Bolesław Prus, 1847–1912: Kalendarz życia i twórczości. p. 604.
  33. ^ The girl was Janina Głoskowska, stepdaughter of Ludwik Trembiński, brother of Prus's wife, Oktawia Trembińska. Krystyna Tokarzówna and Stanisław Fita, Bolesław Prus, 1847–1912: Kalendarz życia i twórczości, p. 782.
  34. H.G. Wells and the Year 2000," The Polish Review
    , vol. XLVIII, no. 1, 2003, p. 89.
  35. ^ Pauszer-Klonowska, Gabriela. Ostatnia miłość w życiu Bolesława Prusa. pp. passim.
  36. ^ Pieścikowski, Edward. Bolesław Prus. p. 148.
  37. ^ Tokarzówna, Krystyna; Stanisław Fita. Bolesław Prus, 1847–1912: Kalendarz życia i twórczości. pp. 187–90.
  38. ^ Lorentowicz, Jan (Spojrzenie wstecz, 1935), in the book, Wspomnienia o Bolesławie Prusie, 106.
  39. ^ Zdzisław Najder, Joseph Conrad: A Life, 2007, p. 463.
  40. ^ Tokarzówna, Krystyna; Stanisław Fita. Bolesław Prus, 1847–1912: Kalendarz życia i twórczości. p. 474.
  41. ^ Krystyna Tokarzówna and Stanisław Fita, Bolesław Prus, 1847–1912: Kalendarz życia i twórczości (Bolesław Prus, 1847–1912: A Calendar of His Life and Work), p. 251.
  42. ^ Pieścikowski, Edward, Bolesław Prus, 152.
  43. ^ Pieścikowski, Edward, Bolesław Prus, p. 166.
  44. ^ Cited in Zygmunt Szweykowski, Twórczość Bolesława Prusa (The Creative Writing of Bolesław Prus), 2nd ed., Warsaw, Państwowy Instytut Wydawniczy, 1972, p. 171.
  45. ^ Szweykowski, Zygmunt. Twórczość Bolesława Prusa. p. 109.
  46. ^ Parallels between discovery in science and art, including the phenomenon of multiple discovery, have been drawn in David Lamb, Multiple Discovery: The Pattern of Scientific Progress, Amersham, Avebury Press, 1984.
  47. ISBN 978-0-520-04477-7
    .
  48. passim
    .
  49. ^ Szweykowski, Zygmunt. Twórczość Bolesława Prusa. pp. passim.
  50. ^ Tokarzówna, Krystyna; Stanisław Fita, Bolesław Prus, 1847–1912: Kalendarz życia i twórczości, passim.
  51. ^ Hiż, Tadeusz, in Stanisław Fita, ed., Wspomnienia o Bolesławie Prusie, 277-78.
  52. ^ Szweykowski, Zygmunt, "Geneza noweli 'Z legend dawnego Egiptu'" (The Genesis of the Short Story, "A Legend of Old Egypt"), in Nie tylko o Prusie: szkice (Not Only about Prus: Sketches), 1st ed., 1967, pp. 256–61.
  53. ^ Pieścikowski, Edward, Bolesław Prus, 67.
  54. ^ Kasparek, Christopher, "Prus' Pharaoh and Curtin's Translation," The Polish Review, vol. XXXI, nos. 2–3 (1986), 127.
  55. ^ Szweykowski, Zygmunt, Twórczość Bolesława Prusa, passim.
  56. ^ a b Pieścikowski, Edward. Bolesław Prus. p. 157.
  57. ^ Oral account by Prus's widow, Oktawia Głowacka, cited by Tadeusz Hiż, "Godzina u pani Oktawii" ("An Hour at Oktawia Głowacka's"), in the book, Wspomnienia o Bolesławie Prusie, 278.
  58. ^ Pieścikowski, Edward. Bolesław Prus. pp. 157–58.
  59. ^ Pieścikowski, Edward. Bolesław Prus. pp. 159–60.
  60. ^ Tokarzówna, Krystyna; Stanisław Fita; Zygmunt Szweykowski, ed.; Bolesław Prus, 1847–1912: Kalendarz życia i twórczości (Bolesław Prus, 1847–1912: a Calendar of His Life and Work), 1969, passim.
  61. ^ Tokarzówna, Krystyna; Stanisław Fita. Bolesław Prus, 1847–1912: Kalendarz życia i twórczości. p. 626.
  62. ^ Pieścikowski, Edward. Bolesław Prus. pp. 142–43, 165–67.
  63. ISBN 978-0-520-04477-7
    .
  64. ^ Kasparek, Christopher (1994), "Prus' Pharaoh: the Creation of a Historical Novel," The Polish Review, 39 (1), 46.
  65. ^ Pieścikowski, Edward, Bolesław Prus, 167.
  66. ^ Wróblewski, Zbigniew. To samo ramię.
  67. ^ Kotarbiński, Miłosz, "Kilka luźnych wspomnień o Bolesławie Prusie" ("Several Loose Reminiscences about Bolesław Prus"), in Stanisław Fita, ed., Wspomnienia o Bolesławie Prusie, 147-48.
  68. Państwowy Instytut Wydawniczy
    , 1969, p. 708.
  69. ^ Kotarbiński, Miłosz, "Kilka luźnych wspomnień o Bolesławie Prusie" ("Several Loose Reminiscences about Bolesław Prus"), in Stanisław Fita, ed., Wspomnienia o Bolesławie Prusie, 148, 151.
  70. ^ Hiż, Tadeusz, "Godzina u pani Oktawii" ("An Hour at Oktawia Głowacka's"), in Stanisław Fita, ed., Wspomnienia o Bolesławie Prusie, 279.
  71. ^ Pauszer-Klonowska, Gabriela, Ostatnia miłość w życiu Bolesława Prusa, passim.
  72. ISBN 978-83-240-4543-3
    , p. 456.
  73. Państwowy Instytut Wydawniczy
    , 1969, pp. 576–77.
  74. ^ Tokarzówna, Krystyna, and Stanisław Fita, Bolesław Prus, 1847–1912, photo facing p. 705.
  75. ^ Pieścikowski, Edward, Bolesław Prus, pp. 152, 156.
  76. ^ Szweykowski, Zygmunt. Twórczość Bolesława Prusa. pp. 111–12.
  77. ^ Pieścikowski, Edward. Bolesław Prus. pp. 10–14.
  78. ISBN 978-0-520-04477-7
    .
  79. ^ Najder, Zdzisław. Conrad under Familial Eyes. p. 209.
  80. ^ Najder, Zdzisław. Conrad under Familial Eyes. p. 215.
  81. ISBN 978-0-520-04477-7
    .
  82. ^ Szweykowski, Zygmunt. Twórczość Bolesława Prusa. p. 288.
  83. ^ Kasparek, Christopher (1986). "Prus' Pharaoh and Curtin's Translation". The Polish Review. 31 (2–3): 127–35.
  84. ^ For example, by Janina Kulczycka-Saloni, in Jan Zygmunt Jakubowski, ed., Literatura polska od średniowiecza do pozytywizmu p. 631.
  85. ^ Wilhelm Feldman, cited in Teresa Tyszkiewicz, Bolesław Prus, p. 339.
  86. ^ Pieścikowski, Edward, Bolesław Prus, p. 157.
  87. ^ Bolesław Prus, The Doll, translation by David Welsh, revised by Dariusz Tołczyk and Anna Zaranko, 1996; Pharaoh, translated from the Polish by Christopher Kasparek, 2nd ed., 2001.
  88. passim
    .
  89. ^ Pieścikowski, Edward, Bolesław Prus, pp. 138–39, 161, 163–64.
  90. ^ Melkowski, Stefan. Poglądy estetyczne i działalność krytycznoliteracka Bolesława Prusa. pp. 84–146.
  91. ^ Pieścikowski, Edward. Bolesław Prus. pp. 74–75.
  92. ^ Melkowski, pp. 117–23.
  93. ^ Kasparek, Christopher (1995). "Two Micro-stories by Bolesław Prus". The Polish Review. 40 (1): 99–103.
  94. ^ Pieścikowski, Edward. Bolesław Prus. pp. 94–95, 159 and passim.
  95. ^ Kotarbiński, Miłosz, "Kilka luźnych wspomnień o Bolesławie Prusie" ("Several Loose Reminiscences about Bolesław Prus"), in Stanisław Fita, ed., Wspomnienia o Bolesławie Prusie, 147-48, 151.
  96. ^ Pieścikowski, Edward. Bolesław Prus. pp. 136–37.
  97. ^ Pieścikowski, Edward, Bolesław Prus, 68–69.
  98. ^ Pieścikowski, Edward. Bolesław Prus. pp. 144–45.
  99. ^ "Bolesław Prus". Polish Ocean Lines. Retrieved 2 March 2008.
  100. ^ "Three Polish Coins Honor Boleslaw Prus". Coin Update News. Retrieved 21 September 2012.
  101. ^ Witness articles such as Aleksander Kaczorowski, "My z Wokulskiego" ("We [Descendants] of Wokulski) [protagonist of Prus's novel The Doll]" in Plus Minus, the Rzeczpospolita (Republic) Weekly [Magazine], no. 33 (1016), Saturday-Sunday, 18–19 August 2012, pp. P8-P9.

Bibliography

External links
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