Bongo drum
Percussion instrument | |
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Other names |
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Classification | Percussion |
Hornbostel–Sachs classification | 211.251.2 (Sets of single-skin conical drums) |
Developed | Late 19th century in Cuba |
Related instruments | |
Bongos (Spanish: bongó) are an Afro-Cuban percussion instrument consisting of a pair of small open bottomed hand drums of different sizes.[1] The pair consists of the larger hembra (lit. 'female') and the smaller macho (lit. 'male'), which are joined by a wooden bridge. They are played with both hands and usually held between the legs, although in some cases, as in classical music, they may be played with sticks or mounted on stands.
Bongos are mainly employed in the
Bongos originated in eastern Cuba at the end of the 19th century, possibly from a pair of larger drums such as the bokú. These older, larger bongos are known as bongó del monte and played in changüí. The smaller bongos used in son cubano were popular across Cuba by the 1910s and reached the concert halls of the eastern United States in the 1930s. By the 1940s, bongos and congas were sharing the stage as son ensembles grew in size and Latin music began to cross-pollinate with jazz and other genres. During the second half of the 20th century, bongos began to be played in a wide variety of genres, from bachata to Latin rock.[3]
Construction
Bongo drums are about 20 centimetres (8 in) high and have diameters of approximately 20 centimetres (8 in) and 25 centimetres (10 in).
Technique
Bongo drums produce relatively
When playing son cubano and other popular genres, the macho is on the left and the hembra on the right. In changüí, the bongó de monte is positioned the opposite way.
Bongos can also be played on a stand, as is the case with concert orchestras and bands. In
History
Origin and etymology
The origin of the bongo is largely unclear. Its use was first documented in the eastern region of Cuba, the Oriente Province, during the late 19th century, where it was employed in music styles such as nengón, changüí, and their descendant, the son cubano.[3] According to Fernando Ortiz, the word bongó derived from the Bantu words mgombo or ngoma, meaning drum.[12] He hypothesizes that the word evolved through metathesis and by similarity with another Bantu word, mbongo.[12] According to Ortiz's early 20th century informants, the large bongó del monte (mountain bongo) used in changüí was the ancestor of the smaller bongó used in son cubano and salsa.[7]
As explained by eastern Cuban informants to Benjamin Lapidus, the oral tradition among changüí musicians in Oriente is that the bongó originated as a replacement for pairs of bokús that were slung over the player's knee.[7] Bokús are tall drums popular in the eastern provinces, particularly during carnival processions, and featured in early changüí groups. Eventually, these drums were cut in half into bongos. This may explain why the bongó del monte used in changüí is larger than the bongos used in son. In Holguín, similar drums which are considered possible ancestors of the bongó are known as tahona, which might have a been a generic word for drum in Cuba and also refers to an unrelated music genre.[13] Other generic terms that have been used to refer to bongos across eastern Cuba include tahonitas, tambora, atambora and tumba.[14]
The bokú/tahona origin of the bongos agrees with the generally agreed notion held by Afro-Cuban cultural historians that the bongo derives from Bantu drum models from Central Africa, noticeable in the open bottoms. The strong historical presence of Africans from the Congo/Angola region in eastern Cuba (where the bongo first appeared) makes such an influence possible, as does the widespread use of the term bongó/bonkó among Bantu speakers.[7] Moreover, Central African/Congo influences are also documented in both son cubano and changüí, and initially the development of the bongo drum was in parallel with these genres. From such conceptual African drum models, the bongo developed further in Cuba itself, and some historians state that the attaching of the two drums was a later invention that took place in Cuba. Therefore, the instrument has been described as "African in concept but Cuban in invention".[15] Ortiz's hypothesis for the origin of the bokú is that their tall unusual shape was the result of a purposeful avoidance of "African-looking" drums by Afro-Cuban musicians at a time when most drums of that sort were banned.[16]
Less supported hypotheses for the origin of the bongos, largely based on their superficial similarity to other twin drums, include the Cuban pailas and timbales (descended from European tympani), the Arab nakers, the North African tbilat (called "African clay bongos"),[17] the Indian tabla, etc.[18][19]
Evolution and popularization
The bongo entered Cuban popular music as a key instrument of early son ensembles, quickly becoming—due to the increasing popularity of the son—"the first instrument with an undeniable African past to be accepted in Cuban “society” circles".[3] This is attested, for example, in poems by Nicolás Guillén.[3] As son evolved and distanced itself from its precursor, the changüí, so did the bongos. The bongos used in changüí, known as bongó de monte, are larger and tuned lower than their modern counterparts, have tack-heads instead of tunable hardware, and play in a manner similar to the lead conga drum (quinto) and other folkloric lead drum parts.[7] Unlike modern son, changüí never extended its popularity beyond eastern Cuba, and hence its bongos remain a rare sight. It is commonly accepted that the son reached Havana partly as a result of the arrival of musicians members of Cuba's ejército permanente (permanent army), which brought music from eastern Cuba with them. Among the first known bongoseros to enlist in the ejército permanente in Santiago de Cuba was Mariano Mena.[20]
During the sexteto era, son groups began performing and touring more than ever before, and for the first time, recordings were being made. It was in this context that the first great innovators of the bongo made their mark, and unlike their predecessors, their names were not lost in time.
"The Cuban government has prohibited the beating of the African bongo drum. The restriction carries heavy penalties on the ground that the monotonous reverberations induce a state of savagery in ignorant listeners and a state of irritation in others."
In 1929, bongos and other drums were banned by the Cuban government.[24][25] This prohibition extended that of 1925, which outlawed congas in the context of street carnivals, but not the comparsas themselves. Ironically, this original ban was enacted by the mayor of Santiago de Cuba, Desiderio Arnaz II, father of Desi Arnaz, who later popularized congas, bongos and bokús across America and the world. This repression of Afro-Cuban culture was denounced by poets in the Afrocubanismo such as Guillén, whose "Canción del bongó" (Song of the bongo) was published in 1931.[26]
The 1930s saw an increase in the technical skill of bongoseros, as evidenced by Clemente "Chicho" Piquero, whose virtuosic performances inspired a young
Following the popularization of the tumbadora, Santamaría switched to the instrument, while remaining a close friend of bongosero Armando Peraza.[34] Both moved to New York by 1950, bringing their music abilities with them. Among the bongoseros who stayed in Cuba were the aforementioned Chicho Piquero, who had become a close friend of Benny Moré in Mexico and became his Banda Gigante's bongosero back in Cuba. Also important during the 1950s were Papa Gofio of the Conjunto Rumbavana and Rogelio "Yeyo" Iglesias, the main bongo player in Havana's descarga scene.[35] Over the course of the 20th century, the bongo spread throughout Latin America. In the Dominican Republic, the bongo became integral to bachata, a genre related to bolero that emerged in the 1960s.[36]
In the United States
In the 1920s, bongos were first played in the United States during the recording sessions of Cuban son ensembles such as
Things changed one Saturday afternoon in April 1930, when the Havana Casino Orchestra directed by
Spearheaded by the iconic conguero Chano Pozo, the late 1940s saw an exodus of Afro-Cuban percussionists from Cuba to the United States. Among the leading bongoseros of Cuban origin in the United States were Armando Peraza, Chino Pozo (unrelated to Chano) and Rogelio Darias, who had a long career in Las Vegas and was known as the King of the Bongo.[40] Many others, however, would become primarily conga players, such as Mongo Santamaría, Sabú Martínez and Cándido Camero.
The Latin music scene of New York, and the US in general, was primarily constituted by Puerto Ricans, and many influential bongoseros were Puerto Ricans who learned from Cubans. An early example is Rafael "Congo" Castro, who arrived in New York in 1924 and had a long career as a bongosero in Chicago until the 1980s.
Other Puerto Rican musicians who made a name for themselves on the bongos were Richie Bastar of El Gran Combo de Puerto Rico, Ralph Marzán of Johnny Pacheco's charanga, "Little" Ray Romero, Frank Colón and Roberto Roena. On the other hand, American master bongoseros include Jack Costanzo and Willie Bobo (of Puerto Rican origin), the latter more active on timbales. Other bongoseros who had more impact as timbaleros were Manny Oquendo, Orestes Vilató and Nicky Marrero. American novelty rock acts such as Preston Epps and Michael Viner's Incredible Bongo Band capitalized on the popularity of the instrument as well as its exotic and rhythmic qualities.
Notes
- ^ Some musicians were able to effectively translate their technical skill into pure showmanship, as was the case with Lázaro Pla, known as Manteca, who toured with the Lecuona Cuban Boys in the 1940s and became an attraction in Havana in the 1950s.[28][29] He later moved to Miami and released two albums as a leader in the 1970s.
References
- OCLC 974035735.
- Percussive Notes. 24 (1): 25–26.
- ^ a b c d e f Fernandez 2006, p. 22–41.
- ^ ISBN 9780826463227.
- ISBN 9780313087943.
- ^ Ortiz, Fernando (1985). Nuevo catauro de cubanismos (in Spanish). Editorial de Ciencias Sociales. p. 82.
- ^ ISBN 9781461670292.
- ^ Ortiz 1953, p. 244.
- ISBN 9780786690404.
- ^ Beck 2013, p. 13.
- ISBN 978-1-107-15150-5.
- ^ a b Ortiz, Fernando (1924). Glosario de afronegrismos (in Spanish). Havana, Cuba: Editorial de Ciencias Sociales. p. 64.
- ^ Rodríguez 1997, p. 262.
- ^ Rodríguez 1997, p. 412.
- ^ LCCN 2003022097.
- ^ Ortiz 1953, p. 382.
- ^ Beck 2013, p. 91.
- ISBN 978-0-933224-61-2.
- ISBN 978-1-61911-599-6.
- ISBN 9789591011497.
- ^ Orejuela p. 202.
- ^ Encuentro de la cultura cubana. Asociación Encuentro de la Cultura Cubana. 2003. Issues 28–31.
- ^ Liner notes of Cuban Dance Party: Routes of Rhythm Volume 2 (1990). Rounder Records.
- ^ a b "Havana". Life. No. 93. 1929.
- ^ "Cuba Bans Beating of African Bongo Drum; Used as Jungle Wireless and in Voodoo Rites". The New York Times. 17 February 1929.
- ISBN 978-1-4438-2242-8.
- ^ a b Fernandez 2006, p. 85.
- ISBN 9781588345479.
- ^ Collazo, Bobby (1987). La última noche que pasé contigo (in Spanish). San Juan, PR: Cubanacán. p. 417.
- ISBN 9781610656641.
- JSTOR j.ctt5vkh3b.
- ^ Fernandez 2006, p. 101–102.
- ^ a b Sublette p. 572.
- ^ Fernandez 2006, p. 88.
- ISBN 9781457101410.
- ISBN 9780313087943.
- ISBN 978-0-252-01722-3.
- ISBN 978-1-108-38641-8.
- ISBN 978-0-9643201-0-9.
- ^ "Remembering Rogelio Darias". Congressional Record Index, Volume 156, A-K, L-Z, Part 10. US Congress. February 4, 2010. pp. 1248–1249.
- ^ Flores, Carlos (1996). "Rafael "Congo" Castro: One of the Last Performers of his Generation" (PDF). Kalinda!. No. Spring 1996.
- ISBN 9781617130298.
Bibliography
- Beck, John H. (2013). Encyclopedia of Percussion. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-317-74768-0.
- Fernandez, Raul A. (2006). From Afro-Cuban Rhythms to Latin Jazz. University of California Press. OCLC 535982099.
- Ortiz, Fernando (1953). Los instrumentos de la música afrocubana Vol. 3 (in Spanish). Dirección de Cultura del Ministerio de Educación.
- Rodríguez, Victoria Eli (1997). Instrumentos de la música folclórico-popular de Cuba (in Spanish). Havana, Cuba: Centro de Investigación y Desarrollo de la Música Cubana. ISBN 9789590602795.