Mexican Border War (1910–1919)

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Border War (1910–1919)
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Border War
Part of the
Mexican–American border
states
Result

American victory[1]

  • Seditionist insurgency suppressed
  • Permanent border wall established along the border of Nogales, Sonora, and Nogales, Arizona, after the American victory in the Battle of Ambos Nogales[2]
  • Pancho Villa's troops defeated, consequently no longer an effective fighting force[3]
  • U.S failed Villa Expedition as U.S troops leave north Mexico without the Mexican general
Belligerents

Mexico

Supported by:
 Germany  United StatesCommanders and leaders Álvaro Obregón
Venustiano Carranza
Pancho Villa
Felipe Ángeles
Aniceto Pizana
Luis de la Rosca Herbert J. Slocum
John J. Pershing
Frank Tompkins
Frederick J. HermanCasualties and losses 867 soldiers, militia, and insurgents killed[a]
400+ civilians killed[b] 123 soldiers killed
427 civilians killed[12]

The Mexican Border War,

Mexican–American border region of North America during the Mexican Revolution. The period of the war encompassed World War I, and the German Empire
attempted to have Mexico attack the United States, as well as engaging in hostilities against American forces there itself.

The Mexican Border War was the fifth and last major conflict fought on U.S. soil, its predecessors being the American Revolutionary War, the War of 1812, the Mexican–American War (1846–1848), and the American Civil War. The end of the Mexican Revolution on December 1, 1920, marked the close of the American Frontier, although the American Indian Wars went on for another four years. The Bandit War[15] in Texas was part of the Border War.

From the beginning of the Mexican Revolution in 1910, the

Villista rebels
, killing Villa's two top lieutenants. The revolutionary himself escaped, and the American army returned to the United States in January 1917.

Conflict at the border continued, however, and the United States launched several smaller operations into Mexican territory until after the American victory in the

Constitutionalistas and Germans also engaged with American forces in that period. Another aspect of the Border Wars was the desire of the United States to control the flow of immigrants into the U.S. to help counter rebel raids in U.S. territory. In 1914, the United States occupied Veracruz
, aiming to cut off supplies of ammunition from the German Empire to Mexico at the start of World War I.

1st Aero Squadron in 1916 which was deployed during the expedition
United States Army troops returning to the U.S. in January 1917
Yaqui prisoners and 10th Cavalry troops on 9 January 1918, after the skirmish in Bear Valley, Arizona

Timeline

1910

1911

1912

1913

  • Nogales, Sonora, was attacked by General Obregón's army of over 2,000 Constitutionalists in 1913. Defending federal forces under General Emilio Kosterlitzky collapsed and surrendered to the United States Army garrison of Nogales, Arizona
    .
  • The Battle of Naco is fought. Álvaro Obregón's rebel army defeated the federal Mexican border town garrison of Naco, Sonora. United States troops watched the battle from across the border.
  • American troops in Naco, Arizona, begin construction of
    forts
    built by the United States Army along the border for protection against warring Mexican forces.
  • General John Pershing and Pancho Villa meet at
    Fort Bliss, Texas, and would meet again later in 1914 at Ojinaga, Chihuahua
    .

1914

  • On 9 April, the Tampico Affair, an incident in Tampico, Tamaulipas, between United States Navy sailors and Mexican troops, occurred. It resulted in the severing of diplomatic relations between Mexico and the United States.
  • In response to the Tampico Affair, President Woodrow Wilson asked Congress to approve an armed invasion of Mexico.
  • Congress approves the invasion. The United States Navy's Atlantic fleet under
    amphibious assault
    and a street battle with Mexican defenders.
  • The longest battle of the Mexican Revolution was fought at
    Buffalo Soldiers
    stationed in Naco, Arizona, were wounded by rebels shooting into their camp. Eight soldiers were wounded but they did not return fire and were later recognized for their good discipline.
  • Pancho Villa and Emiliano Zapata capture Mexico City but soon after are forced to retreat by Álvaro Obregón's army.

1915

  • Carrancistas draft the
    race war
    . The plan was discovered by the Americans after a Carrancista leader was arrested in Texas though some fighting did occur in the form of raids, launched by rebels into Texas territory.
  • Pancho Villa attacks General Obregón's Constitutionalist garrison at Nogales, Sonora. Villa initiated a siege but over time was defeated due to the lack of artillery and insufficient supplies. During the siege the United States 12th Infantry garrison of Nogales, Arizona, was attacked by Villistas and in turn skirmished for a half hour. One American was killed along with several of Villa's rebels.
  • Villistas and Constitutionalists fought again at Agua Prieta in November. Later, Villa attributed his defeat to large searchlights used during the battle by the United States Army garrison of Douglas, Arizona. The battle ended in defeat for Villa and led to the more disastrous Battle of Hermosillo on 15 November. At this time, Villa's forces pillaged the city instead of fighting the garrison, resulting in a repulse. Constitutionalist forces were allowed access to American railways for troop movement.

1916

  • The January 1916 San Isabel Massacre occurred. Villistas stopped a train near Santa Isabel, Chihuahua, and killed eighteen American passengers from the ASARCO company of Tucson, Arizona.
  • Now losing the war, Pancho Villa decided to raid Columbus, New Mexico, for supplies on 9 March 1916. The raid did not go as planned and Villa's 500 cavalrymen were defeated by over 300 United States infantry and cavalrymen, who were stationed in a border fort outside of town. Columbus was heavily damaged by the Villistas who burned several of the town's buildings. Sixty to eighty Villistas were killed along with over a dozen American troops and civilians.
  • In response to the attack on Columbus, President Wilson ordered General John J. Pershing to proceed into Mexico with over 5,000 soldiers to capture or kill Pancho Villa, thus beginning the Pancho Villa Expedition.
  • On 5 May, Villa's rebels attacked two more American border towns, Glenn Springs, Texas, and Boquillas, Texas. Over 200 troops under Rodriguez Ramirez and Natividad Álvarez crossed the Texas border with the intention of capturing supplies. At Glenn Springs, a United States Army squad of nine soldiers resisted the Villista attack for several hours but eventually, the raiders set fire to the adobe building the Americans were held up in and forced the 14th Infantry soldiers to retreat. Three of the United States troops were killed and four others were wounded. One young American boy was also killed by the Mexicans. At Boquillas, 12 mi (19 km) from Glenn Springs, the Americans there captured Álvarez and discovered he was a lieutenant colonel in Pancho Villa's División del Norte and was a veteran of the Battle of Celaya.
  • The raiders of Glenn Springs and Boquillas took two captives with them when they withdrew across the border, Jesse Deemer and Monroe Payne, who were later rescued by American Army forces during a small cavalry expedition into Mexico. The expedition of eighty men, two wagons, and a car began on 8 May from Marathon, Texas, and was under the command of Colonel Frederick W. Sibley and Colonel George T. Langhorne. The rebels were held up at El Pino, Chihuahua, and at first Colonel Langhorne negotiated for the release of the two Americans; when this failed, he ordered his troops to embark his personal car and head for El Pino. Upon their arrival, the Villistas fled and Deemer and Payne were freed. During the operation which ended on 21 May, five Mexicans were killed in skirmishes with no American losses.
  • In May 1916, President Wilson ordered the
    National Guard to reinforce the United States Army garrisons at the borderline.[17]
    By August, an estimated 117,000 guardsmen were stationed along the border in Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, and California.
  • On 12 April, American forces and Carrancistas fought the Battle of Parral in Chihuahua. When United States troops under Major Frank Tompkins attempted to leave the city of Parral, they were attacked by Carrancista riflemen. The Americans returned fire, and over the course of several hours, 45 Mexicans lay dead along with two Americans. The engagement marked the furthest penetration into northern Mexico by American forces, Parral is over 500  miles from the border.
  • In June, Buffalo Soldiers of the
    Carrizal
    . The most famous battle of the Border War was fought and ended with the deaths of 45 Mexicans and more than 100 Americans. Forty-four other Mexicans and Americans were wounded.
  • Raids on American border towns continued during and for years after the Pancho Villa Expedition. On 15 June, raiders killed four American soldiers at San Ygnacio, Texas. On 31 July, another soldier and a United States customs inspector were killed in a second raid. During both engagements, Mexicans were killed or wounded but their casualties are not known.
  • Future General
    armored vehicles at a ranch near San Miguelito. Three Mexicans were killed, including the Villista General Julio Cárdenas
    . Patton is said to have carved notches into the pistols he carried, representing the troops he killed with them.

1917

1918

  • United States Army Intelligence stationed at Fort Huachuca, Arizona, detected a German military presence in Sonora and ordered troops to begin surveillance operations to prepare for war with Mexico. Mexican railways, train stations, and other related enterprises were inspected as possible routes for a large-scale American invasion.
  • Revolutionary
    Yaqui Native Americans established a base in Bear Valley, Arizona, to store weapons intended to be smuggled into Mexico. When the base was discovered by the United States Army, Blondy Ryder of the 10th Cavalry was ordered to evict the rebel Yaquis. On 9 January, Ryder's patrol attacked
    the Yaquis in a small half-hour engagement. The camp was destroyed, one Yaqui was killed, and nine others were captured. The United States Cavalry suffered no casualties.
  • In mid-August, Lieutenant Colonel Frederick J. Herman received an anonymous message from a Mexican revolutionary about a possible attack on Nogales, Arizona, by Mexican federal soldiers and a group of German military advisers. On 27 August, a Mexican suspected of gun smuggling crossed the border into Nogales, Sonora, followed by a US Customs agent and two US Army troops. A Mexican soldier watched the incident and fired on the American agent. The shot was a miss but hit one of the soldiers, and the other two Americans returned fire and killed the Mexican soldier. From there, the incident escalated from a small dispute into the Battle of Ambos Nogales. Reinforcements from both sides rushed to the border to fight; soldiers of the 35th Infantry Regiment called for aid, and a squadron of 10th Cavalry under Herman responded. When they arrived, they attacked the Mexican positions on top of hills along the other side of the border. The assault was successful and the Mexican troops with their German advisers were defeated. In all, 30–129 Mexicans, two Germans, and seven Americans died in the fighting.[18] After the battle, German military activity in Sonora ceased. The Battle of Ambos Nogales was the last major engagement of the Border War.

1919

  • American and Mexican forces skirmished near
    Villistas led by Pancho Villa. It was the second-largest battle of the Mexican Revolution involving the United States, and is considered the last battle of the Border War,[19] although there were other incursions such as the US military crossings into Mexico during the Candelaria border incursion of 1919
    .
  • The Treaty of Versailles was signed on 28 June at the Palace of Versailles which stated that Germany and all opposing nations agree on peace and war reparations be made due to all of the damage done to cities and innocent people.[20] This was also known as the most important peace treaty of World War 1.

The Borderlands

The 1910s saw escalated violence between Anglo-Americans and Mexican-Americans in Texas. There were numerous instances of violence, including lynchings, against Mexicans by vigilantes, and law enforcement, such as the Texas Rangers. Violence was at its highest from 1915 to 1919, in response to the Plan de San Diego by Mexican and Tejano insurgents to conquer Texas. This further increased the prevalence of anti-Mexican sentiment.[21] At least 300 Mexican Americans were killed in Texas during the 1910s, with total estimates ranging from hundreds to thousands killed. At least 100 Mexican Americans were lynched in the 1910s, mostly in Texas.[22][21] 20 percent of all recorded lynchings of Mexicans in the United States occurred between 1910 and 1920.[23] About 400 Anglo-Texans were also killed total in unrest and attacks along the border during the 1910s, and much property was destroyed.[24]

Occupation of Veracruz

The United States occupation of Veracruz (21 April to 23 November 1914) came in the midst of poor diplomatic relations between Mexico and the United States, and was related to the ongoing Mexican Revolution. Tensions were further escalated by the Tampico Affair of 9 April 1914, where nine American sailors landed in a restricted dock area and were subsequently detained for an hour and a half. Following this, "the Ypiranga incident—in which the U.S. learned that the SS Ypiranga, a German steamer, was about to deliver weapons and munitions to the Mexican government at Veracruz" occurred, violating the unilateral sanction the United States had imposed on Mexico. As a result, the U.S. military seized the port beginning with the Battle of Veracruz and ending seven months later.[25]

The Mexican Revolution

During the Mexican Border Wars, there was a series of revolutionary attacks on the Mexican Government and Military that started in 1910 and was most prolific throughout 1920. Francisco I. Madero challenged Porfirio Díaz in the election, who has been a longtime Mexican president but recently sent the citizens into economic struggles. Madero lost to an unfair ballot and this caused uprisings throughout Mexico which made Diaz lose control and overthrew him in 1911. After Madero gained control, he had to defend himself from other powerful leaders such as Bernardo Reyes and Victoriano Huerta. They believed that Madero was attacking for the wrong reasons and was able to end his leadership in 1913. This caused a series of attacks against powerful regional leaders throughout Mexico for the next 7 years. In 1914, leaders such as Venustiano Carranza and Pancho Villa overthrew Huerta and Reyes' regime until 1915. Carranza later betrayed Pancho Villa and by 1917, Carranza created the Constitution of Mexico and promoted land reform in Mexico as well as other important documents and increased the power of the federal government.

See also

References

Notes

  1. ^ Villistas: 373+ insurgents killed, 19 captured[4][5]
    Carrancistas: 142+ insurgents killed[4][6]
    Federales: 202+ soldiers[7][8] and 150+ militia[9] killed.
  2. ^ "Several hundred" civilians killed at Veracruz[10] and 100 civilians killed at Ambos Nogales (some may have been Villistas).[11]
  1. ^ Parra, "Valientes Nogalenses", 16-17.
  2. ^ Parra, "Valientes Nogalenses", 23–24.
  3. ^ "City of Albuquerque". City of Albuquerque.
  4. ^ a b Pershing Report, October 1916, Appendix M (General Orders, No. 1)
  5. ^ Beede, Benjamin R. (1994). The War of 1898, and U.S. interventions, 1898–1934: an encyclopedia, Taylor & Francis, p. 325.
  6. ^ Rosales, Francisco A. (1999). Pobre raza!: violence, justice, and mobilization among México Lindo immigrants, 1900-1936. University of Texas Press. p. 15
  7. ^ de Quesada, Alejandro (March 2012). The Hunt for Pancho Villa: The Columbus Raid and Pershing's Punitive Expedition. Osprey Publishing. p. 12.
  8. . Retrieved 18 January 2010. Note: Library of Congress Number: 93-206790.
  9. ^ Gastón García Cantú (1996). Las invasiones norteamericanas en México (in Spanish). México: Fondo de Cultura Económica. p. 276.
  10. ^ Alan McPherson (2013). Encyclopedia of U.S. Military Interventions in Latin America, p. 393, ABC-CLIO, USA.
  11. ^ Finley, Vol. 2, part 6
  12. ^ John Boessenecker. "Texas Ranger: The Epic Life of Frank Hamer, the Man Who Killed Bonnie and Clyde." Thomas Dunne Books (26 April 2016). Page 134.
  13. ^ Weber, pg. 84
  14. ^ "Mexican Border Campaign Veterans' Card File Indexes". digitalarchives.state.pa.us. Archived from the original on 27 July 2011. Retrieved 3 August 2011.
  15. ^ "Raiders attack Norias Division of King Ranch". Archived from the original on 19 February 2014. Retrieved 10 November 2011.
  16. ^ "August 27, 1918: The Battle of Ambos Nogales brings the Fence to the Border | The Daily Dose".
  17. ^ Barnes, Alexander F. (29 February 2016). "On the border: The National Guard mobilizes for war in 1916". United States Army. Retrieved 1 June 2018.
  18. .
  19. (PDF) on 13 October 2011. Retrieved 5 August 2011.
  20. ^ "Treaty of Versailles | Definition, Summary, Terms, & Facts | Britannica". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 10 October 2022.
  21. ^
    OCLC 60837804
    .
  22. .
  23. ^ "A Review of The Lynching of Mexicans in the Texas Borderlands". Southern Spaces. Retrieved 10 October 2022.
  24. ^ "The 1919 Ranger Investigation". Texas State Library. 25 April 2016. Retrieved 29 July 2021.
  25. ^ "United States Occupation of Veracruz | Summary | Britannica". www.britannica.com. Retrieved 13 July 2023.

Bibliography

External links