Borneo

Coordinates: 0°N 114°E / 0°N 114°E / 0; 114
Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
Not to be confused with Brunei, Barneo, or Brno.

Borneo
Kalimantan
FT
Sabah
Sarawak
Labuan
Largest settlementKota Kinabalu (pop. 500,421)
Demographics
Population21,258,000 (2023 Censuses)[1][2][3] (2023)
Pop. density30.8/km2 (79.8/sq mi)

Borneo (

Java, west of Sulawesi, and east of Sumatra
.

The island is politically divided among three countries: Malaysia and Brunei in the north, and Indonesia to the south.[4] Approximately 73% of the island is Indonesian territory. In the north, the East Malaysian states of Sabah and Sarawak make up about 26% of the island. The population in Borneo is 23,053,723 (2020 national censuses).[1][2][3]

Additionally, the Malaysian federal territory of Labuan is situated on a small island just off the coast of Borneo. The sovereign state of Brunei, located on the north coast, comprises about 1% of Borneo's land area. A little more than half of the island is in the Northern Hemisphere, including Brunei and the Malaysian portion, while the Indonesian portion spans the Northern and Southern hemispheres.

Etymology

The Native people of Borneo referred to their island as Pulu K'lemantang but not as an ethnic name, when the sixteenth century

Portuguese explorer Jorge de Menezes made contact with the native which became the name for modern-day Indonesian Borneo.[5][6][7] The term kelamantan is used in Sarawak to refer to a group of people who consume sago in the northern part of the island.[8] According to Crowfurd, the word kelamantan is the name of a type of mango (Mangifera) so the island of Borneo is called a mango island by the native. But he adds that the word is fanciful and unpopular.[9] The local mango, called klemantan, is still widely found in rural areas in Ketapang and surrounding areas of West Kalimantan.[10]

Internationally it is known as Borneo, derived from European contact with the

Age of Exploration. On a map from around 1601, Brunei city is referred to as Borneo, and the whole island is also labelled Borneo.[11][12] The name Borneo may derive from the Sanskrit word váruṇa (वरुण), meaning either "water" or Varuna, the Hindu god of rain.[13]

Another source said it was from the

kala (time or season) and manthana (churning, kindling or creating fire by friction),[15] which possibly describes the heat of the weather.[16]

In 977,

Chau Ju-Kua (趙汝适).[17] The Javanese manuscript Nagarakretagama, written by Majapahit court poet Mpu Prapanca in 1365, mentioned the island as Nusa Tanjungnagara, which means the island of the Tanjungpura Kingdom.[18]

Geography

Geology

See also: Geological history of Borneo
Location of Borneo in Maritime Southeast Asia. The Red River Fault is included.

Borneo was formed through

mega-annum (Ma) as a consequence of Australia-Southeast Asia collision.[19] Large volumes of sediment were shed into basins, which scattered offshore to the west, north and east of Borneo as well into a Neogene basin which is currently exposed in large areas of eastern and southern Sabah. In southeast Sabah, the Miocene to recent island arc terranes of the Sulu Archipelago extend onshore into Borneo with the older volcanic arc was the result of southeast dipping subduction while the younger volcanics are likely resulted from northwest dipping subduction the Celebes Sea.[19]

Rich marine life off the coast of Borneo, in the Sulu Sea

Before sea levels rose at the end of the

Java and Sulawesi, respectively. To the northeast are the Philippine Islands. With an area of 743,330 square kilometres (287,000 sq mi), it is the third-largest island in the world, and is the largest island of Asia (the largest continent). Its highest point is Mount Kinabalu in Sabah, Malaysia, with an elevation of 4,095 m (13,435 ft).[22]

Lake Sentarum, Kapuas Hulu Regency, West Kalimantan

The largest river system is the Kapuas in West Kalimantan, with a length of 1,143 km (710 mi).[23] Other major rivers include the Mahakam in East Kalimantan (980 km (610 mi) long),[24] the Barito, Kahayan, and Mendawai in South Kalimantan (1,090 km (680 mi), 658 km (409 mi), and 616 km (383 mi) long respectively),[25] Rajang in Sarawak (565 km (351 mi) long)[26] and Kinabatangan in Sabah (560 km (350 mi) long).[27] Borneo has significant cave systems. In Sarawak, the Clearwater Cave has one of the world's longest underground rivers while Deer Cave is home to over three million bats, with guano accumulated to over 100 metres (330 ft) deep.[28] The Gomantong Caves in Sabah has been dubbed as the "Cockroach Cave" due to the presence of millions of cockroaches inside the cave.[29][30] The Gunung Mulu National Park in Sarawak and Sangkulirang-Mangkalihat Karst in East Kalimantan which particularly a karst areas contains thousands of smaller caves.[31]

Ecology

See also: Biodiversity of Borneo, Fauna of Borneo, Flora of Borneo, List of endemic birds of Borneo, and List of mammals of Borneo
endemic
to Borneo

The Borneo

eastern Sumatran rhinoceros, the Bornean clouded leopard, the Bornean rock frog, the hose's palm civet and the dayak fruit bat.[34][35]

NASA satellite image of Borneo on 19 May 2002

Borneo river shark is known only from the Kinabatangan River.[40] In 2010, the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) stated that 123 species have been discovered in Borneo since the "Heart of Borneo" agreement was signed in 2007.[41]

Logging road in East Kalimantan, Indonesia

The WWF has classified the island into seven distinct ecoregions. Most are lowland regions:[42][43][44]

According to analysis of data from

primary forest, compared with Malaysian Borneo's 4.4 million hectares (11 million acres) of tree cover loss and 1.9 million hectares (4.7 million acres) of primary forest cover loss. As of 2020, Indonesian Borneo accounts for 72% of the island's tree cover, Malaysian Borneo 27%, and Brunei 1%. Primary forest in Indonesia accounts for 44% of Borneo's overall tree cover.[46]

Conservation issues

See also: Deforestation in Borneo, 1997 Indonesian forest fires, 1997 Southeast Asian haze, 2006 Southeast Asian haze, 2013 Southeast Asian haze, 2015 Southeast Asian haze, 2016 Southeast Asian haze, and 2019 Southeast Asian haze
Logging near Crocker Range National Park. Borneo has lost more than half of its rainforests in the past half century.[47]

The island historically had extensive rainforest cover, but the area was reduced due to heavy

El Niño season, worsening the annual shrinkage of the rainforest.[49] During these fires, hotspots were visible on satellite images and the resulting haze frequently affected Brunei, Indonesia and Malaysia. The haze could also reach southern Thailand, Cambodia, Vietnam and the Philippines as evidenced on the 2015 Southeast Asian haze.[50]

A 2018 study found that Bornean orangutans declined by 148,500 individuals from 1999 to 2015.[51]

Topography

Mount Kinabalu in Malaysia, the highest summit of the island[22]

List of highest peaks in Borneo by elevation.

  • Mount Kinabalu 13,435 ft (4,095 m)
  • Mount Trusmadi 8,668 ft (2,642 m)
  • Raya Hill 7.474 ft (2.278 m)
  • Muruk Miau 6,837 ft (2,084 m)
  • Mount Wakid 6,778 ft (2,066 m)
  • Monkobo Hill 5,866 ft (1,788 m)
  • Mount Lotung 5,843 ft (1,781 m)
  • Mount Magdalena 4,288 ft (1,307 m)
  • Talibu Hill 4,144 ft (1,263 m)

River systems

Kapuas River in Indonesia; at 1,000 km (620 mi) in length, it is the longest river in Borneo.[23]

List of longest river in Borneo by length.

History

Early history

indigenous people in the island, were feared for their headhunting
practices.

In November 2018, scientists reported the discovery of the oldest known figurative art painting, over 40,000 (perhaps as old as 52,000) years old, of an unknown animal, in the cave of Lubang Jeriji Saléh on the island of Borneo.[52][53]

According to ancient Chinese (977),

Archaeological findings in the Sarawak river delta reveal that the area was a thriving centre of trade between India and China from the 6th century until about 1300.[56]

Western imperialism

Stone pillars bearing inscriptions in the

Hindu influence in Southeast Asia.[57] By the 14th century, Borneo became a vassal state of Majapahit (in present-day Indonesia),[58][59] later changing its allegiance to the Ming dynasty of China.[60] Pre-Islamic Sulu, then known locally as Lupah Sug, stretched from Palawan and the Sulu archipelago at the Philippines; to Sabah, Eastern, and Northern Kalimantan in Borneo.[61] The Sulu empire rose as a rebellion and reaction against former Majapahit Imperialism against Sulu which Majapahit briefly occupied. The religion of Islam entered the island in the 10th century,[62] following the arrival of Muslim traders who later converted many indigenous peoples in the coastal areas.[63]

The Sultanate of Brunei declared independence from Majapahit following the death of the Majapahit emperor in the mid-14th century. During its golden age under Bolkiah from the 15th to the 17th century, the Bruneian sultanate ruled almost the entire coastal area of Borneo (lending its name to the island due to its influence in the region) and several islands in the Philippines.[64] During the 1450s, Shari'ful Hashem Syed Abu Bakr, an Arab born in Johor,[65] arrived in Sulu from Malacca. In 1457, he founded the Sultanate of Sulu; he titled himself as "Paduka Maulana Mahasari Sharif Sultan Hashem Abu Bakr".[66] Following its independence in 1578 from Brunei's influence,[67] Sulu began to expand its thalassocracy to parts of the northern Borneo.[68][69] Both the sultanates who ruled northern Borneo had traditionally engaged in trade with China by means of the frequently-arriving Chinese junks.[70][71] Despite the thalassocracy of the sultanates, Borneo's interior region remained free from the rule of any kingdoms.[72]

British and Dutch control

Main articles: British Borneo and Dutch East Indies
British flag hoisted for the first time on the island of Labuan on 24 December 1846

Since the

Moro pirates from the southern Philippines, such as in the Battle off Mukah.[81]

Map of the island divided between the British and the Dutch, 1898. The present boundaries of Malaysia, Indonesia and Brunei are largely inherited from the British and Dutch colonial rules.

The Dutch began to intervene in the southern part of the island upon resuming contact in 1815, posting

residents to Banjarmasin, Pontianak and Sambas and assistant-residents to Landak and Mampawa.[82][83] The Sultanate of Brunei in 1842 granted large parts of land in Sarawak to the English adventurer James Brooke, as a reward for his help in quelling a local rebellion. Brooke established the Raj of Sarawak and was recognised as its rajah after paying a fee to the sultanate. He established a monarchy, and the Brooke dynasty (through his nephew and great-nephew) ruled Sarawak for 100 years; the leaders were known as the White Rajahs.[84][85] Brooke also acquired the island of Labuan for Great Britain in 1846 through the Treaty of Labuan with the sultan of Brunei, Omar Ali Saifuddin II on 18 December 1846.[86] The region of northern Borneo came under the administration of North Borneo Chartered Company following the acquisition of territory from the Sultanates of Brunei and Sulu by a German businessman and adventurer named Baron von Overbeck, before it was passed to the British Dent brothers (comprising Alfred Dent and Edward Dent).[69][87] Further expansion by the British continued into the Borneo interior.[88] This led the 26th sultan of Brunei, Hashim Jalilul Alam Aqamaddin to appeal the British to halt such efforts, and as a result a Treaty of Protection was signed in 1888, rendering Brunei a British protectorate.[89]

The Dayak tribe during an Erau ceremony in Tenggarong

Before the acquisition by the British, the Americans also managed to establish their temporary presence in northwestern Borneo after acquiring a parcel of land from the Sultanate of Brunei. A company known as American Trading Company of Borneo was formed by Joseph William Torrey, Thomas Bradley Harris and several Chinese investors, establishing a colony named "Ellena" in the Kimanis area.[90] The colony failed and was abandoned, due to denials of financial backing, especially by the US government, and to diseases and riots among the workers.[91] Before Torrey left, he managed to sell the land to the German businessman, Overbeck.[92] Meanwhile, the Germans under William Frederick Schuck were awarded a parcel of land in northeastern Borneo of the Sandakan Bay from the Sultanate of Sulu where he conducted business and exported large quantities of arms, opium, textiles and tobacco to Sulu before the land was also passed to Overbeck by the sultanate.[93][94]

Arab-Malay Sultan of Pontianak in 1930

Prior to the recognition of Spanish presence in the Philippine archipelago, a protocol known as the

North Borneo Railway.[97][98] During this time, the British sponsored a large number of Chinese workers to migrate to northern Borneo to work in European plantation and mines,[99] and the Dutch followed suit to increase their economic production.[100] By 1888, North Borneo, Sarawak and Brunei in northern Borneo had become British protectorate.[101] The area in southern Borneo was made Dutch protectorate in 1891.[77] The Dutch who already claimed the whole Borneo were asked by Britain to delimit their boundaries between the two colonial territories to avoid further conflicts.[101] The British and Dutch governments had signed the Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1824 to exchange trading ports in Malay Peninsula and Sumatra that were under their controls and assert spheres of influence. This resulted in indirectly establishing British- and Dutch-controlled areas in the north (Malay Peninsula) and south (Sumatra and Riau Islands) respectively.[102]

In 1895,

Miri Oil Field in 1910, and the Seria oil field in 1929.[103][104][105]

World War II

See also: Japanese occupation of British Borneo and Japanese occupation of the Dutch East Indies
Japanese troops march through the streets of Labuan on 14 January 1942.
Operation Oboe Six
, 10 June 1945

During World War II, Japanese forces gained control and occupied most areas of Borneo from 1941 to 1945. In the first stage of the war, the British saw the Japanese advance to Borneo as motivated by political and territorial ambitions rather than economic factors.

Jesselton Revolt, many innocent indigenous and Chinese people were executed by the Japanese for their alleged involvement.[109]

In Kalimantan, the Japanese also killed many Malay intellectuals, executing all the Malay sultans of West Kalimantan in the

Celebes, and Lesser Sunda, set up in February 1945.[113]

After the

was completely liberated
in 1945.

Recent history

Sukarno visiting Pontianak, West Kalimantan, in 1963

In May 1945, officials in Tokyo suggested that whether northern Borneo should be included in the proposed new country of Indonesia should be separately determined based on the desires of its indigenous people and following the disposition of Malaya.[119] Sukarno and Mohammad Yamin meanwhile continuously advocated for a Greater Indonesian republic.[120] Towards the end of the war, Japan decided to give an early independence to a new proposed country of Indonesia on 17 July 1945, with an Independence Committee meeting scheduled for 19 August 1945.[113] However, following the surrender of Japan to the Allied forces, the meeting was shelved. Sukarno and Hatta continued the plan by unilaterally declaring independence, although the Dutch tried to retake their colonial possession in Borneo.[113]

The southern part of the island achieved its independence through the

China.[122] Meanwhile, Sarawak and Sabah in northern Borneo became separate British crown colonies in 1946.[123][124]

Queen's Own Highlanders 1st Battalion conduct a patrol to search for enemy positions in the jungle of Brunei.

In 1961, Prime Minister

Singapore and the protectorate of Brunei under the proposed Federation of Malaysia.[125] The idea was heavily opposed by the governments in both Indonesia and the Philippines as well from communist sympathisers and nationalists in Borneo.[126][127] Sukarno, as the president of the new republic, perceiving the British trying to maintain their presence in northern Borneo and the Malay Peninsula, decided to launch a military infiltration, later known as the confrontation, from 1962 to 1969.[128] As a response to the growing opposition, the British deployed their armed forces to guard their colonies against Indonesian and communist revolts,[129] which was also participated by Australia and New Zealand.[130][131]

The Philippines opposed the newly proposed federation, claiming the eastern part of North Borneo (today the Malaysian state of Sabah) as part of its territory as a former possession of the Sultanate of Sulu.[132] The Philippine government mostly based their claim on the Sultanate of Sulu's cession agreement with the British North Borneo Company, as by now the sultanate had come under the jurisdiction of the Philippine republican administration, which therefore should inherit the Sulu former territories. The Philippine government also claimed that the heirs of the sultanate had ceded all their territorial rights to the republic.[133]

The proposed flag of the North Borneo Federation, an attempt to establish a sovereign state by unifying North Borneo, Brunei and Sarawak by A. M. Azahari

The Sultanate of Brunei at the first welcomed the proposal of a new larger federation.

Brunei Revolt, which thwarted Azahari's attempt and forced him to escape to Indonesia. Brunei withdrew from being part of the new Federation of Malaysia due to some disagreements on other issues while political leaders in Sarawak and North Borneo continued to favour inclusion in a larger federation.[136]

With the continuous opposition from Indonesia and the Philippines, the Cobbold Commission was established to discover the feeling of the native populations in northern Borneo; it found the people greatly in favour of federation, with various stipulations.[137][138] The federation was successfully achieved with the inclusion of northern Borneo through the Malaysia Agreement on 16 September 1963.[139] To this day, the area in northern Borneo is still subjected to attacks by Moro pirates since the 18th century and militant from groups such as Abu Sayyaf since 2000 in the frequent cross border attacks. During the administration of Philippine president Ferdinand Marcos, Marcos made some attempts to destabilise the state of Sabah,[140] although his plan failed and resulted in the Jabidah massacre and later the insurgency in the southern Philippines.[141][142]

In August 2019, Indonesian president Joko Widodo announced a plan to move the capital of Indonesia from Jakarta to a newly established location in the East Kalimantan province in Borneo.[143]

Demographics

The demonym for Borneo is Bornean.[144]

Borneo had 23,053,723 inhabitants (in 2020 Censuses),[1][2] a population density of 30.8 inhabitants per square kilometre (80 inhabitants per square mile). Most of the population lives in coastal cities, although the hinterland has small towns and villages along the rivers.

Territories by population, size and timezone

Country Population Area (km2) Density
per km2
 Province/State Population Area (km2) Density
per km2
 Capital Time zone
 Bruneia b 460,345[145]
(2% of the population)		 5,765 km2
(1% of the land area)		 72.11/km2
 Bandar Seri Begawan
UTC+8
 Indonesia (Kalimantan)a 16,544,696[146]
(72% of the population)		 539,238 km2
(72% of the land area)		 30.8/km2
  North Kalimantan 713,622
(3% of the population)		 72,275 km2
(9.7% of the land area)		 9.7/km2 Tanjung Selor
UTC+8
 East Kalimantan 3,849,842
(16.8% of the population)		 127,347 km2
(17.1% of the land area)		 29.6/km2
 Samarinda
UTC+8
 South Kalimantan 3,808,235
(16.6% of the population)		 38,744 km2
(5.2% of the land area)		 105.1/km2
 Banjarbaru
UTC+8
 Central Kalimantan 2,702,200
(11.8% of the population)		 153,565 km2
(20.6% of the land area)		 17.4/km2
 Palangka Raya
UTC+7
 West Kalimantan 5,470,797
(23.8% of the population)		 147,307 km2
(19.8% of the land area)		 36.8/km2
 Pontianak
UTC+7
 Malaysia (East Malaysia)a 5,967,582
(25.9% of the population)		 198,447 km2
(26% of the land area)		 30.7/km2
  Sabah 3,418,785
(14.9% of the population)		 73,904 km2
(9.9% of the land area)		 46/km2
 Kota Kinabalu
UTC+8
 Sarawak 2,453,677
(10.7% of the population)		 124,450 km2
(16.7% of the land area)		 22/km2
 Kuching
UTC+8
 Labuan 95,120
(0.4% of the population)		 92 km2
(0.1% of the land area)		 1,000/km2
 Victoria
UTC+8
Total 22,972,623 743,450 km2
 30.9~/km2

a May includes the offshore islands and its populations
b Due to its size, Brunei is further subdivided into 4 districts (mukim), which is similar to the size of smaller administrative units in Indonesia (kecamatan) and Malaysia (daerah)

10 largest cities and towns in Borneo by population

Cities and major towns in Borneo
  •   Provincial/State capital
  •   National capital
Rank City Population[147] Country Province/State
1 Samarinda 727,500  Indonesia  East Kalimantan
2 Banjarmasin 625,481  Indonesia  South Kalimantan
3 Kuching 617,886  Malaysia  Sarawak
4 Balikpapan 557,579  Indonesia  East Kalimantan
5 Pontianak 554,764  Indonesia  West Kalimantan
6 Kota Kinabalu 462,963  Malaysia  Sabah
7 Tawau 412,375  Malaysia  Sabah
8 Sandakan 409,056  Malaysia  Sabah
9 Miri 300,543  Malaysia  Sarawak
10 Bandar Seri Begawan 300,000  Brunei

Urbanisation by region

Kuching, the third largest city in Borneo after Samarinda and Banjarmasin
Country Province/State Urban-Rural Population (%)
Urban Rural
 Brunei[148][149] 78.25% 21.75%
 Indonesia (Kalimantan)[150]  East Kalimantan
 North Kalimantanc		 68.9% 31.1%
 South Kalimantan 48.4% 51.6%
 Central Kalimantan 40.2% 59.8%
 West Kalimantan 36.2% 63.8%
 Malaysia (East Malaysia)[151][152]  Sabah 54.7% 45.3%
 Sarawak 57% 43%
 Labuan 88.9% 11.1%

c Data based on the projection in the former territories in East Kalimantan Province (prior to the separation of North Kalimantan in 2012)

Major ethnicities by region

Young Dayak dancers in their traditional clothes, Pampang Cultural Village, Samarinda, East Kalimantan, Indonesia
A group of Bruneian men in Baju Melayu, the ethnic Malays of Borneo are primarily inhabited the coastal areas of the island
Country Province/State Major ethnic groupsd
Indigenous Non-indigenous
 Brunei Bisaya, Dusun, Kedayan, Malay Chinese
 Indonesia (Kalimantan)  North Kalimantan Bajau, Bulungan, Dayak, Tidung Bugis, Javanese
 East Kalimantan Banjarese, Berau, Dayak, Kutai, Paser Bugis, Javanese
 South Kalimantan Banjarese, Dayak Bugis, Javanese, Madurese
 Central Kalimantan Banjarese, Dayak, Malay Javanese, Madurese
 West Kalimantan Dayak, Malay Chinese, Javanese, Madurese
 Malaysia (East Malaysia)  Sabah
Suluk
 Bugis, Chinese
 Sarawak
Malay, Melanau, Orang Ulu
 Chinese
 Labuan Bajau, Kadazan-Dusun, Kedayan, Malay, Murut Chinese

d Based on alphabetical order

Religion

Religions based on regions

Religion in Brunei (2016)[153]

  Islam (80.9%)
  Christianity (7.1%)
  Buddhism (7%)
  Other (5%)

Religion in Malaysian Borneo (2020)[154]

  Islam (51.9%)
  Christianity (37.4%)
  Buddhism (9.0%)
  Confucianism and others (0.3%)
  Hinduism (0.1%)
  No religion (1.3%)

Religion in Indonesian Borneo (December 2023)[155]

  
Roman Catholic (9.09%)
  Buddhism (1.94%)
  Hinduism (1.08%)
  Confucianism (0.1%)
  Folk religion
(0.06%)

Administration

The island of Borneo is divided administratively by three countries.

Political divisions of Borneo

Economy

Seria Oil Refinery, Brunei Darussalam

Borneo's economy depends mainly on agriculture, logging and mining,

oil and gas, and ecotourism.[156] Brunei's economy is highly dependent on the oil and gas production sector, and the country has become one of the largest oil producers in Southeast Asia. The Malaysian states of Sabah and Sarawak are both top exporters of timber.[156] Sabah is also known as the agricultural producer of rubber, cacao, and vegetables, and for its fisheries, while Sabah, Sarawak and Labuan export liquefied natural gas (LNG) and petroleum. The Indonesian provinces of Kalimantan are mostly dependent on mining sectors despite also being involved in logging and oil and gas explorations.[156]

List of territories by GDP/GRP

Further information: List of Indonesian provinces by GDP, List of Indonesian provinces by GRP per capita, and List of Malaysian states by GDP
Country Province/State
GDP
Nominal 		GDP/
GRP
per capita
 Brunei[148][149]
US$
14.1 billion
US$
42,939
 Indonesia (Kalimantan)[150]  North Kalimantan
US$
9.34 billion
US$
12,837
 East Kalimantan
US$
62.05 billion
US$
16,075
 South Kalimantan
US$
16.92 billion
US$
4,046
 Central Kalimantan
US$
13.47 billion
US$
4,913
 West Kalimantan
US$
17.23 billion
US$
3,109
 Malaysia (East Malaysia)[151][152]  Sabah
US$
27.75 billion
US$
8,186
 Sarawak
US$
45.40 billion
US$
18,377
 Labuan
US$
1.88 billion
US$
18,557

Human Development Index by territory

Further information: List of Indonesian provinces by Human Development Index and List of Malaysian states by Human Development Index

HDI is a statistic of combined indicators that takes into account life expectancy, health, education
and per-capita income.

Country Province/State
HDI
score 		Country comparison
 Brunei 0.829 (2022)  Kuwait (0.831)
 Indonesia (Kalimantan)  North Kalimantan 0.718 (2022)  Paraguay (0.717)
 East Kalimantan 0.774 (2022)  Iran (0.774)
 South Kalimantan 0.718 (2022)  Paraguay (0.717)
 Central Kalimantan 0.716 (2022)  Paraguay (0.717)
 West Kalimantan 0.686 (2022)  Iraq (0.686)
 Malaysia (East Malaysia)  Sabah 0.772 (2022)  Iran (0.774)
 Sarawak 0.824 (2022)  Russia (0.822)
 Labuan 0.839 (2022)  Turkey (0.838)

See also

Notes

References

  1. ^ a b c Sugianto, Danang. "Sensus Penduduk 2020 Selesai, Begini Sebaran Masyarakat RI Terbaru". finance.detik.com. Retrieved 27 September 2022.
  2. ^ a b c Malaysia: Federal States, Territories, Districts, Major Cities, Urban Aras & Conurbations - Statistics & Maps on City Population. Citypopulation.de (2013-05-20). Retrieved on 2013-07-12.
  3. ^ a b "W.P. Labuan Sepintas Lalu". statistics.gov.my. Archived from the original on 13 November 2014. Retrieved 19 September 2014.
  4. ^ Donna Marchetti (2 August 1998). "Borneo's Wild Side". The New York Times. Retrieved 20 June 2017.
  5. ISBN 9781273327414
    .
  6. ^ "Notice historique du royaume Banjarmasin (Bornéo) par M. le Baron T. Van Capellen, lieutenant d'artillerie , aide-de-camp de S. Exc. le gouverneur-général des indes néerlandaises" [Historical record of the Banjarmasin Kingdom (Borneo) by Baron T. Van Capellen, lieutenant of artillery, aide-de-camp of His Excellency, the Governor General of the Dutch Indies]. Le Moniteur des Indes-Orientales et Occidentales [The Monitor of the East and West Indies] (in French). The Hague, Netherlands: Belinfant Brothers. 1847. pp. 164.
  7. ^ "A Discourse Delivered at a Meeting of the Society of Arts and Sciences in Batavia, on the Twenty-fourth day of April 1813, being the Anniversary of the Institution, by the Honorable Thomas Stamford Raffles, President.". Verhandelingen van het Bataviaasch Genootschap, der Kunsten en Wetenschappen [Treatises of the Society of Arts and Sciences in Batavia]. Vol. 7. Batavia, Dutch East Indies: A. H. Hubbard. 1814. p. 21.
  8. ISBN 978-0-8160-6383-3
    .
  9. ^ Descriptive Dictionary of the Indian Island (1856).
  10. ISBN 9783527678518
    .
  11. ^ "Kaart van het eiland Borneo, 1601, Benjamin Wright". Retrieved 27 September 2022.
  12. ^ "Antique Map Borneo by De Bry (c.1602)". bartelegallery.com. Retrieved 27 September 2022.
  13. ^ Media, Kompas Cyber (13 December 2018). "Hari Nusantara, Kenali Nama Lawas 5 Pulau Besar di Indonesia Halaman all". KOMPAS.com (in Indonesian). Retrieved 3 August 2020.
  14. ISBN 978-1-101-47613-0
    .
  15. ^ "Sanskrit Dictionary". sanskritdictionary.com. Retrieved 3 August 2020.
  16. ^ Muljana, Slamet (1960). Sriwidjaja (in Indonesian). Pertjetakan Arnoldus. pp. 78–79.
  17. ^ Siti Norkhalbi Haji Wahsalfelah (2005). "Traditional Woven Textiles: Tradition and Identity Construction in the 'New State' of Brunei Darussalam" (PDF). Universiti Brunei Darussalam. pp. 48/29. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 24 May 2017.
  18. ^ Suyatno. "Naskah Nagarakretagama" (in Indonesian). National Library of Indonesia. Archived from the original on 23 May 2017. Retrieved 13 October 2014.
  19. ^ a b c d Allagu Balaguru; Gary Nichols; Robert Hall (2003). "The origin of the 'circular basins' of Sabah, Malaysia" (PDF). Bulletin of the Geological Society of Malaysia, Royal Holloway University of London: 337. Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 May 2019. Retrieved 24 May 2019 – via Geological Society of Malaysia.
  20. ISBN 978-0-389-20507-4
    .
  21. ^ Teresa Zubi (25 October 2015). "Wallacea". Starfish. Archived from the original on 25 May 2017. Retrieved 26 May 2017.
  22. ^ a b "An Awesome Island". Borneo: Island in the Clouds. PBS. Retrieved 11 November 2012.
  23. ^
    ISBN 978-981-4730-43-3
    .
  24. ISBN 978-0-19-850186-2
    .
  25. ISBN 978-981-4504-86-7
    .
  26. ISBN 978-983-2346-61-6
    .
  27. ISBN 978-92-5-105756-8
    .
  28. ^ "Sarawak Visitors Guide". Sarawak State Government. p. 100. Retrieved 26 May 2017.
  29. ^ Nora Rappaport (29 October 2015). "WATCH: Billions of Bugs Feast on Flesh and Dung in Borneo". National Geographic. Archived from the original on 30 October 2015. Retrieved 26 May 2017.
  30. ^ Sean Martin (31 October 2015). "Cockroach cave: Where billions of bugs feed on dead animals and dung [Video]". International Business Times (UK). Retrieved 26 May 2017.
  31. ISBN 978-0-691-16941-5
    .
  32. ISBN 978-1-4718-6130-7
    .
  33. ^ "A prehistoric forest grows in Brunei". ScienceDaily. 28 April 2022.
  34. ^ "Scientists find dozens of new species in Borneo rainforests". World Wide Fund for Nature. 19 December 2006. Retrieved 26 May 2017.
  35. ^ "Borneo wildlife". World Wide Fund for Nature. Retrieved 26 May 2017.
  36. ISBN 978-1-4629-0505-8
    .
  37. ^
  38. ^ MacKinnon, K; et al. (1998). The Ecology of Kalimantan. London: Oxford University Press.
  39. ^ Nguyen, T.T.T., and S. S. De Silva (2006). "Freshwater Finfish Biodiversity and Conservation: An Asian Perspective", Biodiversity & Conservation 15(11): 3543–3568
  40. PMID 26460025
    .
  41. ^ "Scientists discover new species in Heart of Borneo". World Wide Fund for Nature. 22 April 2010. Archived from the original on 28 February 2020. Retrieved 26 May 2017.
  42. ^ a b "Borneo Lowland & Montane Forests – A Global Ecoregion". World Wide Fund for Nature. Archived from the original on 15 July 2017. Retrieved 26 May 2017.
  43. ^ Colby Loucks. "Southeastern Asia: Indonesia, Malaysia, and Brunei". World Wide Fund for Nature. Retrieved 26 May 2017.
  44. ^ "Sundaland heath forests". World Wide Fund for Nature. Retrieved 26 May 2017.
  45. ^ "Global Forest Watch". World Resources Institute. Retrieved 14 August 2020.
  46. ^ "Borneo". Mongabay.com. Retrieved 14 August 2020.
  47. ^ "What Causes Deforestation in Borneo and How Do We Stop It?". Earth.org. 2 March 2023.
  48. ^ "Threats to Borneo forests". World Wide Fund for Nature. Archived from the original on 25 May 2016. Retrieved 26 May 2017.
  49. ^ Jonathan Kaiman (21 October 2015). "Fires in Southeast Asia may be emitting more greenhouse gases than the entire U.S." Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 27 May 2017.
  50. ^ Apichal Sunchindah (December 2015). "Transboundary Haze Pollution Problem in Southeast Asia: Reframing ASEAN's Response" (PDF). Economic Research Institute for ASEAN and East Asia. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 27 May 2017.
  51. ^ Solly, Meilan (16 February 2018). "Borneo's Orangutan Population Plummeted by Half in 16 Years". Smithsonian.
  52. ^ Zimmer, Carl (7 November 2018). "In Cave in Borneo Jungle, Scientists Find Oldest Figurative Painting in the World - A cave drawing in Borneo is at least 40,000 years old, raising intriguing questions about creativity in ancient societies". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 1 January 2022. Retrieved 8 November 2018.
  53. S2CID 53208538
    .
  54. ISBN 978-0-8248-0368-1
    .
  55. S2CID 162474082
    .
  56. ^
    JSTOR 1150309
    .
  57. ISBN 978-1-920942-85-4. Archived from the original
    on 25 December 2013. Retrieved 1 October 2009.
  58. ISBN 978-1-4128-3041-6
    .
  59. ISBN 978-1-317-55919-1
    .
  60. ^ Mohammad Al-Mahdi Tan Kho; Hurng-yu Chen (July 2014). "Malaysia-Philippines Territorial Dispute: The Sabah Case" (PDF). National Chengchi University. NCCU Institutional Repository. Archived from the original (PDF) on 9 May 2016. Retrieved 23 May 2016.
  61. ^ Reading Song-Ming Records on the Pre-colonial History of the Philippines By Wang Zhenping Page 258.
  62. ^ Mariah Doksil (25 August 2014). "Islam arrived in Sabah in 10th century". The Borneo Post. Archived from the original on 11 July 2016. Retrieved 11 July 2016.
  63. ^ "Islam In Indonesia. A resource of Islam in the archipelago". Archived from the original on 7 July 2017. Retrieved 1 May 2017.
  64. ^
  65. ISBN 978-981-230-282-3
    .
  66. ISBN 978-971-550-511-6
    .
  67. ISBN 978-1-884964-04-6
    .
  68. ^
  69. ^
    ISBN 978-99917-32-15-2
    .
  70. ISBN 978-1-57607-770-2
    .
  71. ISBN 978-0-8223-4903-7
    .
  72. ISBN 978-983-100-095-3
    .
  73. ^
    ISBN 978-0-226-46732-0
    .
  74. ISBN 978-0-521-29137-8
    .
  75. ^ The Asiatic Journal and Monthly Register for British and Foreign India, China, and Australia. Parbury, Allen, and Company. 1816. pp. 561–.
  76. ^ a b Sanderson Beck (2007). "Indonesia and the Dutch 1800–1950". San.Beck. Archived from the original on 24 May 2017. Retrieved 24 May 2017.
  77. ^
    California Polytechnic State University
    . p. 5. Retrieved 24 May 2017.
  78. ^ Captain the Hon. Henry Keppel, R.N. (1846). The Expedition to Borneo of H.M.S. Dido for the Suppression of Piracy. Chapman and Hall. pp. 214–.
  79. ISBN 978-90-6718-294-2. Archived from the original
    on 10 June 2020.
  80. ^ H. Wilfrid Walker. "Wanderings Among South Sea Savages And in Borneo and the Philippines". Full Books. pp. 3/3. Archived from the original on 9 June 2008. Retrieved 23 May 2017. Alt URL
  81. ^ Harriette McDougall (1882). "Sketches of Our Life at Sarawak (Chapter XVI. Illanun Pirates)". Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge; E. & J. B. Young. London, New York: Project Canterbury, Anglican History. Retrieved 23 May 2017.
  82. ISBN 978-1-136-78057-8
    .
  83. ISBN 978-1-317-60199-9
    .
  84. ^ "Part 2 – The Brooke Era". The Borneo Project. Earth Island Institute. Archived from the original on 24 May 2013. Retrieved 11 November 2012.
  85. ^ Halliburton, Richard (1932). The Flying Carpet. Indianapolis, Indiana: The Bobbs-Merrill Company. pp. 297–312.
  86. ^ Rozan Yunos (7 September 2008). "Loss of Labuan, a former Brunei island". The Brunei Times. Archived from the original on 28 April 2014. Retrieved 23 May 2017.
  87. ^ "British North Borneo Papers". School of Oriental and African Studies. Archives hub. Retrieved 23 May 2017.
  88. ISBN 978-1-4422-6459-5
    .
  89. ^ "Treaty of Protection 1888 – Brunei". Muslim Museum Initiative. Retrieved 23 May 2017.
  90. ^ Richard Ker (26 August 2012). "Ellena – America's Lost Colony in Kimanis of North Borneo". North Borneo Historical Society. Archived from the original on 21 May 2017. Retrieved 23 May 2017.
  91. ISBN 978-0-674-92615-8
    .
  92. JSTOR 3634654
    .
  93. ISBN 978-9971-69-004-5
    .
  94. ISBN 978-0-230-35485-2. Archived from the original
    on 19 December 2021.
  95. ^ British Government (1885). "British North Borneo Treaties. (British North Borneo, 1885)" (PDF). Sabah State Government (State Attorney-General's Chambers). Archived from the original (PDF) on 29 October 2013. Retrieved 23 May 2017.
  96. ISBN 978-981-10-2245-6
    .
  97. ^ Dr. Johnstone; A. J. West (Officers of the Company) (3 February 1898). "North Borneo Chartered Company: North Borneo Railway; The first train in North Borneo". British North Borneo Chartered Company: Views of British North Borneo, Printed by W. Brown & co., limited, London, 1899. Malayan Railways. Retrieved 23 May 2017.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  98. ^ Rob Dickinson. "The North Borneo Railway Project". The International Steam Pages. Archived from the original on 28 March 2013. Retrieved 23 May 2017.
  99. doi:10.3406/arch.1999.3538
    .
  100. ISBN 978-90-04-25388-9
    .
  101. ^
    ISBN 978-90-474-3364-4
    .
  102. ^ "Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1824 – Malaysia and Indonesia". Muslim Museum Initiative. Retrieved 23 May 2017.
  103. ISBN 978-0-671-79932-8
    .
  104. ^ Sorkhabi, Rasoul (2012). "Borneo's Petroleum Plays". Exploration Asia. GEO ExPro. Archived from the original on 30 August 2021. Retrieved 23 July 2020.
  105. ^ "History of Shell in Indonesia". Shell. Retrieved 17 July 2020.
  106. ISBN 978-0-87727-402-5
    .
  107. ^
    ISBN 978-981-230-812-2
    .
  108. ISBN 978-1-901919-16-5
    .
  109. ISBN 978-1-56311-728-2
    .
  110. ISBN 978-1-137-05201-8.[permanent dead link
    ]
  111. ISBN 978-979-788-109-2
    .
  112. ISBN 978-94-011-9233-0
    .
  113. ^
    ISBN 978-0-585-11423-1
    .
  114. ISBN 978-1-85285-192-7
    .
  115. ^ Judith M. Heimann (9 November 2007). "Guests can succeed where occupiers fail". International Herald Tribune. Archived from the original on 21 June 2008. Retrieved 26 May 2017.
  116. ISBN 978-0-8117-3294-9
    .
  117. ^ Richard Ker (7 November 2013). "Brief History on How the Australians Liberated North Borneo during WWII [Video]". North Borneo Historical Society. Archived from the original on 23 May 2017. Retrieved 23 May 2017.
  118. ^ "Australian invasion of Borneo in pictures". Malayan Railways. Retrieved 23 May 2017.
  119. ISBN 978-1-85065-584-8
    .
  120. ISBN 978-1-139-44761-4
    .
  121. ^ Post-war Borneo, 1945-50: Nationalism, Empire and State-Building
  122. ISBN 978-0-87727-733-0
    .
  123. ISBN 978-983-56-0009-8
    . Retrieved 7 May 2016.
  124. ^ "British North Borneo Becomes Crown Colony". Kalgoorlie Miner. Trove. 18 July 1946. p. 1. Retrieved 17 May 2016.
  125. ISBN 978-981-4365-96-3
    .
  126. ^ United States. Dept. of State. International Information Administration. Documentary Studies Section; United States Information Agency. Special Materials Section; United States. International Communication Agency (1964). Problems of Communism. Special Materials Section, United States Information Agency.
  127. ISBN 978-1-317-16216-2
    .
  128. ISBN 978-1-85109-919-1
    .
  129. ISBN 978-1-317-16210-0
    .
  130. ^ "Aggression Must be Deterred". The Age. 7 September 1964. Retrieved 23 May 2017.
  131. ^ "Confrontation in Borneo". NZ History. Government of New Zealand. Retrieved 23 May 2017.
  132. ^ "I. North Borneo Claim (Excerpt from President Diosdado Macapagal's State-of-the-Nation Message to the Congress of the Philippines)". Philippine Claim to North Borneo (Sabah), Vol. II. Government of the Philippines. 28 January 1963. Archived from the original on 8 March 2021. Retrieved 23 May 2017.
  133. ^ "Cession and transfer of the territory of North Borneo by His Highness, Sultan Mohammad Esmail Kiram, Sultan of Sulu, acting with the consent and approval of the Ruma Bechara, in council assembled, to the Republic of the Philippines". Government of the Philippines. 24 April 1962. Archived from the original on 10 August 2019. Retrieved 23 May 2017.
  134. ^ Mohd. Jamil Al-Sufri (Pehin Orang Kaya Amar Diraja Dato Seri Utama Haji Awang.); Mohd. Amin Hassan (1998). Brunei Darussalam: The Road to Independence. Brunei History Centre, Ministry of Culture, Youth, and Sports.
  135. S2CID 147835844
    .
  136. ISBN 978-0-7007-1303-5
    .
  137. ^ "Report of the Commission of Enquiry, North Borneo and Sarawak, 1962 (Cobbold Commission)". The National Archives. January–December 1962. Retrieved 25 May 2017.
  138. ^ Patricia Hului (16 September 2014). "THE COBBOLD COMMISSION: Giving people a voice". The Borneo Post. Archived from the original on 25 May 2017. Retrieved 25 May 2017.
  139. ^ Great Britain. Colonial Office; Malaysia; Great Britain. Office of Commonwealth Relations (1963). Malaysia: agreement concluded between the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, the Federation of Malaya, North Borneo, Sarawak and Singapore. H. M. Stationery Office.
  140. ^ "Marcos order: Destabilize, take Sabah". Philippine Daily Inquirer. 2 April 2000. Retrieved 25 May 2017.
  141. ^ Paul F. Whitman (2002). "The Corregidor Massacre - 1968". Corregidor Historic Society. Archived from the original on 13 September 2015. Retrieved 5 June 2017.
  142. ISBN 978-1-4398-1551-9
    .
  143. ISSN 0261-3077
    . Retrieved 13 September 2020.
  144. ISBN 978-967-65-3110-0
    .
  145. ^ "Department of Economic Planning and Development - Population". www.depd.gov.bn. Archived from the original on 20 March 2017. Retrieved 12 December 2017.
  146. ^ Badan Pusat Statistik, Jakarta, 2021.
  147. ^ "The 10 Largest Cities In Borneo". World Atlas. 2019. Retrieved 1 April 2023.
  148. ^ a b "Share of the urban population in Brunei from 2012 to 2021". World Atlas. 2023. Retrieved 15 April 2023.
  149. ^ a b "Brunei Urban Population 1960-2023". Macrotrends. Retrieved 15 April 2023.
  150. ^ a b "Persentase Penduduk Daerah Perkotaan menurut Provinsi, 2010-2035". Badan Pusat Statistik. 2020. Retrieved 15 April 2023.
  151. ^ a b "Key Findings of Population and Housing Census of Malaysia 2020: Urban and Rural". Department of Statistics Malaysia Official Portal. 2020. Retrieved 15 April 2023.
  152. ^ a b "Population Distribution and Basic Demographic Characteristic Report 2010 (Updated: 05/08/2011)". Department of Statistics Malaysia Official Portal. 2011. Retrieved 15 April 2023.
  153. ^ "Population by Religion, Sex and Census Year". Archived from the original on 1 April 2021. Retrieved 11 May 2021.
  154. ISBN 978-967-2000-85-3
    .
  155. ^ "ArcGIS Web Application".
  156. ^ a b c "Borneo » City Info » Economy". Borneo.com. Archived from the original on 27 May 2017. Retrieved 28 May 2017.

Further reading

External links

  • Borneo travel guide from Wikivoyage
  • Media related to Borneo at Wikimedia Commons
  • Environmental Profile of Borneo – Background on Borneo, including natural and social history, deforestation statistics, and conservation news.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Borneo&oldid=1220247958"
This page is based on the copyrighted Wikipedia article: Borneo. Articles is available under the CC BY-SA 3.0 license; additional terms may apply.Privacy Policy