Borobudur
Borobudur | |
---|---|
Sailendra Dynasty | |
Restored | 1911, 1983 |
Restored by | Theodoor van Erp |
Architect | Gunadharma |
Website | borobudurpark kebudayaan |
Type | Cultural |
Criteria | i, ii, vi |
Designated | 1991 (15th session) |
Part of | Borobudur Temple Compounds |
Reference no. | 592 |
Region | Southeast Asia |
Borobudur, also transcribed Barabudur (Indonesian: Candi Borobudur, Javanese: ꦕꦤ꧀ꦝꦶꦧꦫꦧꦸꦝꦸꦂ, romanized: Candhi Barabudhur) is a 9th-century Mahayana Buddhist temple in Magelang Regency, near the city of Magelang and the town of Muntilan, in Central Java, Indonesia.
Constructed of gray andesite-like stone,[1] the temple consists of nine stacked platforms, six square and three circular, topped by a central dome. It is decorated with 2,672 relief panels and originally 504 Buddha statues. The central dome is surrounded by 72 Buddha statues, each seated inside a perforated stupa.[2] The monument guides pilgrims through an extensive system of stairways and corridors with 1,460 narrative relief panels on the walls and the balustrades. Borobudur has one of the world's most extensive collections of Buddhist reliefs.
Built during the reign of the
Borobudur is the largest Buddhist temple in the world,[6][3] and ranks with Bagan in Myanmar and Angkor Wat in Cambodia as one of the great archeological sites of Southeast Asia. Borobudur remains popular for pilgrimage, with Buddhists in Indonesia celebrating Vesak Day at the monument. Among Indonesia's tourist attractions, Borobudur is the most-visited monument.[7]
Etymology
In
Another possible etymology by Dutch archaeologist
The construction and inauguration of a sacred Buddhist building—possibly a reference to Borobudur—was mentioned in two inscriptions, both discovered in Kedu,
Location
The three temples
Approximately 40 kilometres (25 mi) northwest of
During the restoration in the early 20th century, Theodoor van Erp discovered that three Buddhist temples in the region, Borobudur, Pawon and Mendut, are positioned along a straight line.[19] A ritual relationship between the three temples must have existed, although the exact ritual process is unknown.[20]
Ancient lake hypothesis
Speculation about a surrounding lake's existence was the subject of intense discussion among archaeologists in the 20th century, and while the idea was explored, experts concluded that a lake was not present
History
Construction
There are no known records of construction or the intended purpose of Borobudur.
Construction of Buddhist temples, including Borobudur, at that time was possible because Sanjaya's immediate successor,
Abandonment
Borobudur lay hidden for centuries under layers of volcanic ash and jungle growth. The facts behind its abandonment remain a mystery. It is not known when active use of the monument and Buddhist pilgrimage to it ceased. Sometime between 928 and 1006, King Mpu Sindok moved the capital of the Mataram Kingdom to the region of East Java after a series of volcanic eruptions; it is not certain whether this influenced the abandonment, but several sources mention this as the most likely period of abandonment.[4][23] The monument is mentioned vaguely as late as c. 1365, in Mpu Prapanca's Nagarakretagama, written during the Majapahit era and mentioning "the vihara in Budur".[38]
Roden Soekmono mentions the assumption that the temple was abandoned after the population converted to Islam in the 15th century.[4] The monument was not forgotten completely, and folk stories gradually became superstitious beliefs associated with bad luck and misery, which Soekmono relates.[4] According to the Babad Tanah Jawi (or the History of Java), the monument was a fatal factor for a rebel who revolted against the king of Mataram in 1709.[4] The insurgent was defeated and sentenced to death.[4] In the Babad Mataram (or the History of the Mataram Kingdom), the monument was associated with the misfortune of the crown prince of the Yogyakarta Sultanate in 1757.[39] In spite of a taboo against visiting the monument, the prince "took such pity on 'the knight who was captured in a cage' (i.e. the statue in one of the perforated stupas) that he could not help coming to see his 'unfortunate friend'".[40] Upon returning to his palace, the prince fell ill and died one day later.[40]
Rediscovery
Following
Christiaan Lodewijk Hartmann, the
The Dutch East Indies government then commissioned Frans Carel Wilsen, a Dutch engineering official, who studied the monument and drew hundreds of relief sketches. Jan Frederik Gerrit Brumund was also appointed to make a detailed study of the monument, which was completed in 1859. The government intended to publish an article based on Brumund's study supplemented by Wilsen's drawings, but Brumund refused to cooperate. The government then commissioned another scholar, Conradus Leemans, who compiled a monograph based on Brumund's and Wilsen's sources. In 1873, the first monograph of the detailed study of Borobudur was published, followed by its French translation a year later.[42] The first photograph of the monument was taken in 1872 by the Dutch-Flemish engraver Isidore van Kinsbergen.[44]
In 1882, the chief inspector of cultural artifacts recommended that Borobudur be entirely disassembled with the relocation of reliefs into museums due to the unstable condition of the monument.[44] As a result, the government appointed Willem Pieter Groeneveldt, curator of the archaeological collection of the Batavian Society of Arts and Sciences, to undertake a thorough investigation of the site and to assess the actual condition of the complex; his report found that these fears were unjustified and recommended it be left intact.[45]
Borobudur was considered as the source of souvenirs, and parts of its sculptures were looted,
Restoration
Borobudur attracted attention in 1885, when the Dutch engineer Jan Willem IJzerman , chairman of the Archaeological Society in Yogyakarta, discovered that the temple base enclosed a hidden foot.[45] Photographs made in 1890–1891 revealed reliefs on the hidden foot; the coverings were then replaced.[45] The discovery led the Dutch East Indies government to take steps to safeguard the monument. In 1900, a three-member commission formed to plan protection, and in 1902, the commission submitted a threefold proposal.[48] First, collapse could be avoided by resetting the corners, removing stones that endangered the adjacent parts, strengthening the first balustrades and restoring several niches, archways, stupas and the main dome. Second, care should be maintained and water discharge should be improved by restoring floors and spouts. Third, all loose stones should be removed, the monument cleared up to the first balustrades, disfigured stones removed and the main dome restored.[48] In 1905, the proposal was approved, and the total cost was estimated at that time around 48,800 Dutch guilders (equivalent to ƒ1,392,279 in 2022).[48]
The restoration began in 1907, led by
Due to the limited budget, the restoration had been primarily focused on cleaning the sculptures, and van Erp did not solve the drainage problem. Within fifteen years, the gallery walls were sagging, and the reliefs showed signs of new cracks and deterioration.[49] Van Erp used concrete from which alkali salts and calcium hydroxide leached and were transported into the rest of the construction. This caused some problems, so that a further thorough renovation was urgently needed.
Small restorations had been performed since then, but not sufficient for complete protection. During
In the late 1960s, the
After the renovation was finished, UNESCO listed Borobudur as a World Heritage Site in 1991.[3] It is listed under Cultural criteria (i) "to represent a masterpiece of human creative genius", (ii) "to exhibit an important interchange of human values, over a span of time or within a cultural area of the world, on developments in architecture or technology, monumental arts, town-planning or landscape design", and (vi) "to be directly or tangibly associated with events or living traditions, with ideas, or with beliefs, with artistic and literary works of outstanding universal significance".[3]
In December 2017, the idea to reinstall
Contemporary events
Religious ceremony
Following the major 1973 renovation funded by
The rituals held in Borobudur including
Tourism
The monument is the single most visited tourist attraction in Indonesia. In 1974, 260,000 tourists visited the monument; 36,000 of them were foreigners.[62] The figure climbed to 2.5 million visitors annually (80% were domestic tourists) in the mid-1990s, before the country's economic crisis.[62] Tourism development, however, has been criticized for not including the local community, giving rise to occasional conflicts.[63] In 2003, residents and small businesses around Borobudur organized several meetings and poetry protests, objecting to a provincial government plan to build a three-storey mall complex, dubbed "Java World".[64]
In June 2012, Borobudur was recorded in the
Conservation
UNESCO identified three specific areas of concern under the present state of conservation: (i) vandalism by visitors; (ii) soil erosion in the south-eastern part of the site; and (iii) analysis and restoration of missing elements.[66] The soft soil, the numerous earthquakes and heavy rains lead to the destabilization of the structure. Earthquakes are by far the most important contributing factors, since not only do stones fall down and arches crumble, but the earth itself can move in waves, further destroying the structure.[66] The increasing popularity of the stupa brings in many visitors, most of whom are from Indonesia. Despite warning signs on all levels not to touch anything, the regular transmission of warnings over loudspeakers and the presence of guards, vandalism on reliefs and statues is a common occurrence and problem, leading to further deterioration.[66]
Rehabilitation
Borobudur was heavily affected by the eruption of Mount Merapi in October and November 2010. Volcanic ash from Merapi fell on the temple complex, which is approximately 28 kilometres (17 mi) west-southwest of the crater. A layer of ash up to 2.5 centimetres (1 in)[67] thick fell on the temple statues during the eruption of 3–5 November, covering the reliefs and clogging the drainage-system, with experts fearing that the acidic ash might damage the historic site.[68] The temple complex was closed from 5 to 9 November to clean up the ashfall.[69][70]
In January 2012, two German stone-conservation experts spent ten days at the site analyzing the temples and making recommendations to ensure their long-term preservation.
On 14 February 2014, major tourist attractions in Yogyakarta and Central Java, including Borobudur, Prambanan and Ratu Boko, were closed to visitors, after being severely affected by the volcanic ash from the eruption of Kelud volcano in East Java, located around 200 kilometers east from Yogyakarta. Workers covered the iconic stupas and statues of Borobudur temple to protect the structure from volcanic ash. The Kelud volcano erupted on 13 February 2014 with an explosion heard as far away as Yogyakarta.[75]
Security threats
On 21 January 1985, nine stupas were badly damaged by nine bombs.[76][77] In 1991, a blind Muslim preacher, Husein Ali Al Habsyie, was sentenced to life imprisonment for masterminding a series of bombings in the mid-1980s, including the temple attack.[78] Two other members of the Islamic extremist group that carried out the bombings were each sentenced to 20 years in 1986, and another man received a 13-year prison term.
On 27 May 2006, an earthquake of 6.2 magnitude struck the south coast of Central Java. The event caused severe damage around the region and casualties to the nearby city of Yogyakarta and Prambanan, but Borobudur remained intact.[79]
In August 2014, Indonesian police and security forces tightened the security in and around Borobudur temple compound, as a precaution to a threat posted on social media by a self-proclaimed Indonesian branch of
Visitor overload problem
The high volume of visitors ascending the Borobudur's narrow stairs, has caused a severe wear out on the stone of the stairs, eroding the stones surface and made them thinner and smoother. Overall, Borobudur has 2,033 surfaces of stone stairs, spread over four cardinal directions; including the west side, the east, south and north. There are around 1,028 surfaces of them, or about 49.15 percent, that are severely worn out.[81]
To avoid further wear of stairs' stones, since November 2014, two main sections of Borobudur stairs – the eastern (ascending route) and northern (descending route) sides – are covered with wooden structures. The similar technique has been applied in
Due to vandalism and graffiti, access to the temple grounds was temporarily blocked in 2020. Since then, a maximum of 1200 visitors are allowed to enter the temple for one hour a day accompanied by tourist guides. Visitors are expected to wear bamboo slippers.[83]
According to Statistics Indonesia, the number of domestic tourists rose from 422,930 in 2021 to 1.44 million in 2022. The Indonesian government is aiming to increase the number of tourists to 2 million per year.[84]
Architecture
The archaeological excavation into Borobudur during reconstruction suggests that adherents of Hinduism[85] or a pre-Indic faith had already begun to erect a large structure on Borobudur's hill before the site was appropriated by Buddhists. The foundations are unlike any Hindu or Buddhist shrine structures, and therefore, the initial structure is considered more indigenous Javanese than Hindu or Buddhist.[86]
Design
Borobudur is built as a single large
The design of Borobudur took the form of a
The monument's three divisions symbolize the three "realms" of Buddhist cosmology, namely
Congregational worship in Borobudur is performed in a walking pilgrimage. Pilgrims are guided by the system of staircases and corridors ascending to the top platform. Each platform represents one stage of
In 1885, a hidden structure under the base was accidentally discovered.
Similarities with the Kesaria site
There are quite a few design similarities between the Borobudur and
Building structure
Approximately 55,000 cubic metres (72,000 cu yd) of andesite stones were taken from neighbouring stone quarries or from the bed of the Progo River to build the monument.[100][101] The stone was cut to size, transported to the site and laid without mortar. Knobs, indentations and dovetails were used to form joints between stones. The roof of stupas, niches and arched gateways were constructed in corbelling method. Reliefs were created in situ after the building had been completed.[102]
The monument is equipped with a good
Borobudur differs markedly from the general design of other structures built for this purpose. Instead of being built on a flat surface, Borobudur is built on a natural hill. However, construction technique is similar to other temples in Java. Without the inner spaces seen in other temples, and with a general design similar to the shape of pyramid, Borobudur was first thought more likely to have served as a stupa, instead of a temple.[100] A stupa is intended as a shrine for the Buddha. Sometimes stupas were built only as devotional symbols of Buddhism. A temple, on the other hand, is used as a house of worship. The meticulous complexity of the monument's design suggests that Borobudur is in fact a temple.
Little is known about Gunadharma, the architect of the complex.[105] His name is recounted from Javanese folk tales rather than from written inscriptions.
The basic unit of measurement used during construction was the tala, defined as the length of a human face from the forehead's hairline to the tip of the chin or the distance from the tip of the thumb to the tip of the middle finger when both fingers are stretched at their maximum distance.[106] The unit is thus relative from one individual to the next, but the monument has exact measurements. A survey conducted in 1977 revealed frequent findings of a ratio of 4:6:9 around the monument. The architect had used the formula to lay out the precise dimensions of the fractal and self-similar geometry in Borobudur's design.[106][107] This ratio is also found in the designs of Pawon and Mendut, nearby Buddhist temples. Archeologists have conjectured that the 4:6:9 ratio and the tala have calendrical, astronomical and cosmological significance, as is the case with the temple of Angkor Wat in Cambodia.[105]
The main structure can be divided into three components: base, body, and top.
Reliefs
Borobudur is constructed in such a way that it reveals various levels of terraces, showing intricate architecture that goes from being heavily ornamented with bas-reliefs to being plain in Arupadhatu circular terraces.[109] The first four terrace walls are showcases for bas-relief sculptures. These are considered to be among the finest works of art in the Buddhist world.[110]
The bas-reliefs in Borobudur depicted many scenes of daily life in 8th-century ancient Java,
Section | Location | Story | No. of panels |
---|---|---|---|
hidden foot | wall | Karmavibhangga | 160 |
first gallery | main wall | Lalitavistara | 120 |
Jataka/Avadana | 120 | ||
balustrade | Jataka/Avadana | 372 | |
Jataka/Avadana | 128 | ||
second gallery | balustrade | Jataka/Avadana | 100 |
main wall | Gandavyuha | 128 | |
third gallery | main wall | Gandavyuha | 88 |
balustrade | Gandavyuha | 88 | |
fourth gallery | main wall | Gandavyuha | 84 |
balustrade | Gandavyuha | 72 | |
Total | 1,460 |
Borobudur contains approximately 2,670 individual
The narrative reliefs are arranged into 11 series over a length of 3,000 metres (9,800 ft) around the hidden foot and the first four galleries of the monument.
The hidden foot depicts the workings of
The law of karma (Karmavibhanga)
The 160 hidden panels do not form a continuous story, but each panel provides one complete illustration of
The story of Prince Siddhartha and the birth of Buddha (Lalitavistara)
The story starts with the descent of the Buddha from the
The birth is preceded by 27 panels showing various preparations, in the heavens and on the earth, to welcome the final incarnation of the bodhisattva.[119] Before descending from Tushita heaven, the Bodhisattva entrusted his crown to his successor, the future Buddha Maitreya. He descended on earth in the shape of a white elephant with six tusks, and penetrated to Queen Maya's right womb. Queen Maya had a dream of this event, which was interpreted that her son would become either a sovereign or a Buddha.
While Queen Maya felt that it was the time to give birth, she went to the
The stories of Buddha's previous life (Jataka) and other legendary people (Avadana)
The first twenty lower panels in the first gallery on the wall depict the Sudhanakumaravadana, or the saintly deeds of
Sudhana's search for the ultimate truth (Gandavyuha)
Sudhana was instructed by
After a second meeting with Manjusri, Sudhana went to the residence of Bodhisattva
Buddha statues
Apart from the story of the Buddhist cosmology carved in stone, Borobudur has many statues of various Buddhas. The cross-legged statues are seated in a lotus position and distributed on the five square platforms (the Rupadhatu level), as well as on the top platform (the Arupadhatu level).
The Buddha statues are in niches at the Rupadhatu level, arranged in rows on the outer sides of the balustrades, the number of statues decreasing as platforms progressively diminish to the upper level. The first balustrades have 104 niches, the second 104, the third 88, the fourth 72 and the fifth 64. In total, there are 432 Buddha statues at the Rupadhatu level.[2] At the Arupadhatu level (or the three circular platforms), Buddha statues are placed inside perforated stupas. The first circular platform has 32 stupas, the second 24 and the third 16, which adds up to 72 stupas.[2]
Of the original 504 buddha statues, over 300 are damaged (mostly headless), and 43 are missing. Since the monument's discovery, heads have been acquired by museums (mostly Western)
At first glance, all the Buddha statues appear similar, but there is a subtle difference between them in the
Following the order of Pradakshina (clockwise circumumbulation) starting from the East, the mudras of the Borobudur buddha statues are:[135]
Statue | Mudra | Symbolic meaning | Dhyani Buddha | Cardinal Point | Location of the Statue |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Bhumisparsa mudra | Calling the Earth to witness | Aksobhya
|
East | Rupadhatu niches on the first four eastern balustrades | |
Vara mudra | Benevolence, alms giving | Ratnasambhava | South | Rupadhatu niches on the first four southern balustrades | |
Dhyana mudra | Concentration and meditation | Amitabha
|
West | Rupadhatu niches on the first four western balustrades | |
Abhaya mudra | Courage, fearlessness | Amoghasiddhi | North | Rupadhatu niches on the first four northern balustrades | |
Vitarka mudra | Reasoning and virtue | Vairochana or Samantabhadra
|
Zenith | Rupadhatu niches in all directions on the fifth (uppermost) balustrade | |
Dharmachakra mudra | Turning the Wheel of dharma (law) | Vairochana
|
Zenith | Arupadhatu in 72 perforated stupas on three rounded platforms |
Legacy
The aesthetic and technical mastery of Borobudur, and also its sheer size, has evoked the sense of grandeur and pride for Indonesians. Just like Angkor Wat for Cambodia, Borobudur has become a powerful symbol for Indonesia — to testify for its past greatness. Indonesia's first President Sukarno made a point of showing the site to foreign dignitaries. The Suharto regime — realized its important symbolic and economic meanings — diligently embarked on a massive project to restore the monument with the help from UNESCO. Many museums in Indonesia contain a scale model replica of Borobudur. The monument has become almost an icon, grouped with the wayang puppet play and gamelan music into a vague classical Javanese past from which Indonesians are to draw inspiration.[136]
Several archaeological artifacts taken from Borobudur or its replica have been displayed in some museums in Indonesia and abroad. Other than
The rediscovery and reconstruction of Borobudur has been hailed by
The emblem of
In art and literature
In her poetical illustration Borro Boedoor., to an engraving of a painting by W. Purser in Fisher's Drawing Room Scrap Book, 1836, Letitia Elizabeth Landon reflects on Borobudur from a Christian perspective.[140]
See also
- Ancient monuments of Java
- Architecture of Indonesia
- Candi of Indonesia
- Laguna Copperplate Inscription
- Ligor inscription
- Trail of Civilizations
- Unfinished Buddha
Notes
- ^ Miksic says construction of Borobudur began around 760 or 770, with sporadic activity until around 830 AD.[31] Munoz says the Sailendra king Samaratungga completed Borobudur in 825 AD.[32]
- ^ On the right depicts sinful act of killing and cooking turtles and fishes. On the left, those who make a living by killing animals will be tortured in hell, by being cooked alive, being cut, or being thrown into a burning house.
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Works cited
Books
- Anom, I.G.N.; Sugiyanti, Sri; Hasibuan, Hadniwati (1996). Ibrahim, Maulana; Samidi (eds.). Hasil Pemugaran dan Temuan Benda Cagar Budaya PJP I (in Indonesian). Direktorat Jenderal Kebudayaan.
- Anom, I.G.N., ed. (2005). The Restoration of Borobudur. ISBN 92-3-103940-7. Retrieved 21 December 2023.
- Atmadi, Parmono (1988). Some Architectural Design Principles of Temples in Java: A study through the buildings projection on the reliefs of Borobudur temple. Yogyakarta: Gajah Mada University Press. ISBN 979-420-085-9.
- Bloembergen, Marieke; Eickhoff, Martijn (2015). Falser, M (ed.). Save Borobudur! The Moral Dynamics of Heritage Formation in Indonesia across Orders and Borders, 1930s–1980s. In Cultural Heritage as Civilizing Mission. Springer. pp. 83–119. ISBN 978-3-319-13637-0.
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Journal articles
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Newspaper and online sources
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Further reading
- Gomez, Luis O. & Woodward, Hiram W. (1981). Barabudur, history and significance of a Buddhist monument. presented at the Int. Conf. on Borobudur, Univ. of Michigan, 16–17 May 1974. Berkeley: Asian Humanities Press. ISBN 0-89581-151-0.
- John Miksic (1999). The Mysteries of Borobudur. Hongkong: Periplus. ISBN 962-593-198-8.
- Morton III, W. Brown (January 1983). "Indonesia Rescues Ancient Borobudur". OCLC 643483454.
- ISBN 0-87727-700-1.
- Klokke, Marijke. Borobudur a Mandala? IIAS Yearbook 1995, pp. 207.
- Levin, Cecelia. "Enshrouded in Dharma and Artha: The Narrative Sequence of Borobudur's First Gallery Wall." In Materializing Southeast Asia's Past: Selected Papers from the 12th International Conference of the European Association of Southeast Asian Archaeologists, edited by Klokke Marijke J. and Degroot Véronique, 27-40. SINGAPORE: NUS Press, 2013. Accessed June 17, 2020. www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctv1qv3kf.7.
- Sundberg, Jeffrey Roger. "Considerations on the Dating of the Barabuḍur Stūpa." Bijdragen Tot De Taal-, Land- En Volkenkunde 162, no. 1 (2006): 95–132. Accessed June 17, 2020. www.jstor.org/stable/27868287.
External links
- Official site of Borobudur, Prambanan, and Ratu Boko Park
- PBS page which talks about the hidden part of Borobudur, 160 reliefs buried.
- Borobudur Temple Compounds short documentary by UNESCO and NHK
- Learning From Borobudur documentary about Borobudur's bas-reliefs stories of Lalitavistara and Gandavyuhain YouTube
- Australian National University's research project on Borobudur
- Analysis of Borobudur's hidden base
- Explore Borobudur on Global Heritage Network
- Borobudur, Hening dalam Keagungan
- 360° virtual tour, Indonesian Directorate General of Buddhist Community Guidance