Bosniaks
Bosnian Croats |
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Bosniaks |
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The Bosniaks (
Bosniaks are typically characterized by their historic ties to the
Etymology
According to the Bosniak entry in the Oxford English Dictionary, the first preserved use of "Bosniak" in English was by English diplomat and historian Paul Rycaut in 1680 as Bosnack, cognate with post-classical Latin Bosniacus (1682 or earlier), French Bosniaque (1695 or earlier) or German Bosniak (1737 or earlier).[15] The modern spelling is contained in the 1836 Penny Cyclopaedia V. 231/1: "The inhabitants of Bosnia are composed of Bosniaks, a race of Sclavonian origin".[16] In the Slavic languages, -ak is a common suffix appended to words to create a masculine noun, for instance also found in the ethnonym of Poles (Polak) and Slovaks (Slovák). As such, "Bosniak" is etymologically equivalent to its non-ethnic counterpart "Bosnian" (which entered English around the same time via the Middle French, Bosnien): a native of Bosnia.[17]
From the perspective of Bosniaks, bosanstvo (Bosnianhood) and bošnjaštvo (Bosniakhood) are closely and mutually interconnected, as Bosniaks connect their identity with Bosnia and Herzegovina.[18]
The earliest attestation to a Bosnian
Linguists have most commonly proposed the
Some scholars also connect the Roman road station Ad Basante, first attested in the 5th century Tabula Peutingeriana, to Bosnia.[28][29] According to the English medievalist William Miller in the work Essays on the Latin Orient (1921), the Slavic settlers in Bosnia "adapted the Latin designation [...] Basante, to their own idiom by calling the stream Bosna and themselves Bosniaks [...]".[28]
According to philologist Anton Mayer the name Bosna could essentially be derived from
Other theories involve the rare Latin term Bosina, meaning boundary, and possible Slavic and Thracian origins.[24][31] Theories that advocates the link of the name Bosnia, and thus of the Bosniaks with the Early Slavs of northern Europe has initially been proposed by the 19th century historians Joachim Lelewel and Johann Kaspar Zeuss, who considered the name of Bosnia to be derived from a Slavic ethnonym, Buzhans (Latin: Busani), mentioned in the Primary Chronicle and by the Geographus Bavarus in his Description of cities and lands north of the Danube. According to both Lelewel and Zeuss Buzhans settled in Bosnia.[32][33] The theory of Slavic origin of the name Bosnia and its possible connection with the Slavic tribe of Buzhans, came also to be advocated by the 20th and 21st century Yugoslav and Bosnian historians such as Marko Vego,[34] Muhamed Hadžijahić[35] and Mustafa Imamović.[36]
For the duration of Ottoman rule, the word Bosniak came to refer to all inhabitants of Bosnia; the use of the term "Bosniak" at that time did not have a national meaning, but a regional one. When Austria-Hungary occupied Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1878, national identification was still a foreign concept to Bosnian Muslims.[37] The inhabitants of Bosnia called themselves various names: from Bosniak, in the full spectrum of the word's meaning with a foundation as a territorial designation, through a series of regional and confessional names, all the way to modern-day national ones. In this regard, Christian Bosnians had not described themselves as either Serbs or Croats prior to the 19th century, and in particular before the Austrian occupation in 1878, when the current tri-ethnic reality of Bosnia and Herzegovina was configured based on religious affiliation.[38] Social anthropologist Tone Bringa develops that "Neither Bosniak, nor Croat, nor Serb identities can be fully understood with reference only to Islam or Christianity respectively, but have to be considered in a specific Bosnian context that has resulted in a shared history and locality among Bosnians of Islamic as well as Christian backgrounds."[39]
Origins
The Early Slavs, a people from northeastern Europe, settled the territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina (and neighboring regions) after the sixth century (amid the Migration Period), and were composed of small tribal units drawn from a single Slavic confederation known to the Byzantines as the Sclaveni (whilst the related Antes, roughly speaking, colonized the eastern portions of the Balkans).[40][41]
Recent Anglophone scholarship has tended to downplay the role of migrations. For example Timothy Gregory conjectures that "It is now generally agreed that the people who lived in the Balkans after the Slavic "invasions" were probably for the most part the same as those who had lived there earlier, although the creation of new political groups and arrival of small numbers of immigrants caused people to look at themselves as distinct from their neighbours, including the Byzantines."[42] However, the archaeological evidence paints a picture of widespread depopulation, perhaps a tactical re-settlement of Byzantine populations from provincial hinterlands to Coastal towns after 620 CE.[43]
In former Yugoslav historiography, a second migration of "Serb" and "Croat" tribes (variously placed in the 7th to 9th century) is viewed as that of elites imposing themselves on a more numerous and 'amorphous' Slavic populace,[40][44][45] however such a paradigm needs to be clarified empirically.
Eighth century sources mention early Slavophone polities, such as the Guduscani in northern Dalmatia, the principality of Slavs in Lower Pannonia, and that of Serbs (Sorabos) who were 'said to hold much of Dalmatia'.[46]
The earliest reference to Bosnia as such is the De Administrando Imperio, written by the Byzantine Emperor Constantine Porphyrogenitus (r. 913-959). At the end of chapter 32 ("Of the Serbs and of the country they now dwell in"), after a detailed political history, Porphyrogenitus asserts that the prince of Serbia has always submitted himself to Rome, in preference to Rome's regional rivals, the Bulgarians. He then gives two lists of kastra oikoumena (inhabited cities), the first being those "en tē baptismenē serbia" (in baptized Serbia; six listed), the second being "εἱς τὸ χορίον Βόσονα, τὸ Κάτερα καί τὸ Δεσνήκ / eis to chorion Bosona, to Katera kai to Desnēk" (in the territory of Bosona, [the cities of] Katera and Desnik).[47]
To Tibor Zivkovic, this suggests that from a tenth century Byzantine viewpoint, Bosnia was a territory within the principality of Serbia.[48] The implicit distinction made by Porphyrogenitus between "baptised Serbia" and the territory of Bosona is noteworthy.
Subsequently, Bosnia might have been nominally vassaled to various rulers from Croatia and Duklja, but by the end of the twelfth century it came to form an independent unit under an autonomous ruler, Ban Kulin, who called himself Bosnian.[49]
In the 14th century a Bosnian kingdom centered on the river Bosna emerged. Its people, when not using local (county, regional) names, called themselves Bosnians.[50][51]
Following the conquest of Bosnia by the
Genetics
According to 2013
An autosomal analysis study of 90 samples showed that Western Balkan populations had a genetic uniformity, intermediate between South Europe and Eastern Europe, in line with their geographic location. According to the same study, Bosnians (together with Croatians) are by autosomal DNA closest to East European populations and overlap mostly with Hungarians.[57] In the 2015 analysis, Bosnians formed a western South Slavic cluster with the Croatians and Slovenians in comparison to eastern cluster formed by Macedonians and Bulgarians with Serbians in the middle. The western cluster (Bosnians included) has an inclination toward Hungarians, Czechs, and Slovaks, while the eastern cluster toward Romanians and some extent Greeks.[56] Based on analysis of IBD sharing, Middle Eastern populations most likely did not contribute to genetics in Islamicized populations in the Western Balkans, including Bosniaks, as these share similar patterns with neighboring Christian populations.[57]
Y-DNA studies on Bosniaks (in Bosnia and Herzegovina) show close affinity to other neighboring
In addition,
Identity
Bosniaks are generally defined as the
Although the official policy of the Austrian-Hungarian government in Bosnia and Herzegovina was the promotion of the Bosniak identity, only a small number of Muslim notables accepted the idea of Bosniak nationhood.[70]
In Yugoslavia,[71] there was no official recognition of a special Bosnian Muslim ethnicity.[72] The Constitution of Yugoslavia was amended in 1968 to introduce a Muslim national group for Serbo-Croatian speaking Muslims; effectively recognizing a constitutive nation. Prior to this, the great majority of Bosnian Muslims had declared either Ethnically Undecided Muslim or – to a lesser extent – Undecided Yugoslav in censuses pertaining to Yugoslavia as the other available options were Serb-Muslim and Croat-Muslim.[73] Although it achieved recognition as a distinct nation by an alternative name, the use of Muslim as an ethnic designation was opposed early on as it sought to label Bosniaks a religious group instead of an ethnic one.
During the World War II, Bosnia and Herzegovina was part of the Independent State of Croatia (NDH), and majority of Bosnian Muslims considered themselves to be ethnic Croats.[74]
Even in the early 1990s, a vast majority of Bosnian Muslims considered themselves to be ethnic Muslims, rather than Bosniaks. According to a poll from 1990, only 1.8% of the citizens of Bosnia and Herzegovina supported the idea of Bosniak national identity, while 17% considered that the name encompasses all of the inhabitants of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Their main political party, the Party of Democratic Action, rejected the idea of Bosniak identity and managed to expel those that promoted it. The supporters of the Bosniak nationhood established their own political party, the Muslim Bosniak Organisation, and received only 1.1% of the votes during the 1990 general election.[75]
On 27 September 1993, however, after the leading political, cultural, and religious representatives of Bosnian Muslims held an assembly and at the same time when they rejected the Owen–Stoltenberg peace plan adopted the Bosniak name deciding to "return to our people their historical and national name of Bosniaks, to tie ourselves in this way for our country of Bosnia and its state-legal tradition, for our Bosnian language and all spiritual tradition of our history". The main reasons for the SDA to adopt the Bosniak identity, only three years after expelling the supporters of the idea from their party ranks, however, was due to reasons of foreign policy. One of the leading SDA figures Džemaludin Latić, the editor of the official gazette of the party, commented the decision stating that: "In Europe, he who doesn't have a national name, doesn't have a country" and that "we must be Bosniaks, that what we are, in order to survive in our country". The decision to adopt the Bosniak identity was largely influenced by the change of opinion of the former communist intellectuals such as Atif Purivatra, Alija Isaković and those who were a part of the pan-Islamists such as Rusmir Mahmutćehajić (who was a staunch opponent of Bosniak identity), all of whom saw the changing of the name to Bosniak as a way to connect the Bosnian Muslims to the country of Bosnia and Herzegovina.[76]
In other ex-Yugoslav countries with significant Slavic Muslim populations, adoption of the Bosniak name has been less consistent. The effects of this phenomenon can best be seen in the censuses. For instance, the 2003 Montenegrin census recorded 48,184 people who registered as Bosniaks and 28,714 who registered as Muslim by nationality. Although Montenegro's Slavic Muslims form one ethnic community with a shared culture and history, this community is divided on whether to register as Bosniaks (i.e. adopt Bosniak national identity) or as Muslims by nationality.
Muslims in SFR Yugoslavia
| |||||||||||||
Republic | 1971 | 1981 | 1991 | ||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Bosnia and Herzegovina | 1,482,430 (39.6%) | 1,630,033 (39.5%) | 1,902,956 (43.5%) | ||||||||||
Montenegro | 70,236 (13.3%) | 78,080 (13.4%) | 89,614 (14.6%) | ||||||||||
Croatia | 18,457 (0.4%) | 23,740 (0.5%) | 43,469 (0.9%) | ||||||||||
Macedonia |
1,248 (0.1%) | 39,512 (2.1%) | 35,256 (1.7%) | ||||||||||
Slovenia | 3,197 (0.2%) | 13,425 (0.7%) | 26,867 (1.4%) | ||||||||||
Serbia | 154,364 (1.8%) | 215,166 (2.3%) | 246,411 (2.5%) | ||||||||||
Yugoslavia |
1,729,932 (8.4%) | 1,999,957 (8.9%) | 2,344,573 (10.0%) |
Relation to Croat and Serb nationalism
As a melting ground for confrontations between different religions, national mythologies, and concepts of statehood, much of the historiography of Bosnia and Herzegovina has since the 19th century been the subject of competing Serb and Croat nationalist claims part of wider Serbian and Croatian hegemonic aspirations in Bosnia and Herzegovina, inherently interwoven into the complex nature of the Bosnian War at the end of the 20th century.[77] As
According to Mitja Velikonja, Bosnia and Herzegovina constitutes "a historical entity which has its own identity and its own history".[79] Robert Donia claims that as Serbia and Croatia only occupied parts of Bosnia and Herzegovina briefly in the Middle Ages, neither have any serious historical claims to Bosnia.[80] Moreover, Donia states that although Bosnia did interact with its Serb and Croat neighbors over the centuries, it had a very different history and culture from them.[81] 12th-century Byzantine historian John Kinnamos reported that Bosnia was not subordinated to the Grand Count of Serbia; rather the Bosnians had their own distinct way of life and government.[82] The expert on medieval Balkan history John V.A. Fine reports that the Bosnians (Bošnjani) have been a distinct people since at least the 10th century.[50]
It is noted that writers on nationalism in Yugoslavia or the Bosnian War tend to ignore or overlook the Bosnian Muslim ideology and activity and see them as victims of other nationalisms and not nationalistic themselves.[83]
History
Middle Ages
Arrival of the Slavs
The western Balkans had been reconquered from "
After the death of Serbian ruler
In 1137, the Kingdom of Hungary annexed most of the Bosnia region, then briefly lost it in 1167 to Byzantium before regaining her in the 1180s. Prior to 1180 (the reign of Ban Kulin) parts of Bosnia were briefly found in Serb or Croat units.[89] Anto Babić notes that "Bosnia is mentioned on several occasions as a land of equal importance and on the same footing as all other [South Slavic] lands of this area."[90]
Banate of Bosnia and the Bosnian Church
Christian missions emanating from Rome and Constantinople had since the ninth century pushed into the Balkans and firmly established Catholicism in Croatia, while Orthodoxy came to prevail in Bulgaria, Macedonia, and eventually most of Serbia. Bosnia, lying in between, remained a no-man's land due to its mountainous terrain and poor communications. By the twelfth century most Bosnians were probably influenced by a nominal form of Catholicism characterized by a widespread illiteracy and, not least, lack of knowledge in Latin amongst Bosnian clergymen. Around this period, Bosnian independence from
Expansion and the Bosnian Kingdom
The Bosnian state was significantly strengthened under the rule (ca. 1318–1353) of ban
By the 1370s, the Banate of Bosnia had evolved into the powerful Kingdom of Bosnia following the coronation of Tvrtko I of Bosnia as the first Bosnian king in 1377, further expanding into neighboring Serb and Croat dominions. However, even with the emergence of a kingdom, no concrete Bosnian identity emerged; religious plurality, independent-minded nobility, and a rugged, mountainous terrain precluded cultural and political unity. As Noel Malcolm stated: "All that one can sensibly say about the ethnic identity of the Bosnians is this: they were the Slavs who lived in Bosnia."[94]
Islamization and Ottoman Empire
- Excerpts from Stephen Tomašević's letter to Pope Pius II.[95][96]
Upon his father's death in 1461,
The Croatian humanist and poet Marko Marulić, known as the Father of the Croatian Renaissance,[100] wrote Molitva suprotiva Turkom (Prayer against the Turks) – a poem in 172 doubly rhymed dodecasyllablic stanzas of anti-Turkish theme, written between 1493 and 1500, where he, among others, included Bosnians as the one of peoples who resisted the Ottomans.[101] The rise of Ottoman rule in the Balkans modified the religious picture of Bosnia and Herzegovina as the Ottomans brought with them a new religion,
Always on purely religious grounds, it is also said, by the orientalist
Many children of Christian parents were separated from their families and raised to be members of the
Ottoman rule affected the ethnic and religious makeup of Bosnia and Herzegovina in additional ways. A large number of Bosnian Catholics retreated to the still unconquered Catholic regions of Croatia,
The
Bosnian nationalism
National consciousness developed in Bosnia and Herzegovina among the three ethnic groups in the 19th century, with emergent national identities being influenced by the
However, members of the 19th century Illyrian movement, most notably franciscan Ivan Franjo Jukić, whose Bosnianhood is apparent from his very pen name "Slavophile Bosnian" (Slavoljub Bošnjak),[121] emphasized Bosnians alongside Serbs and Croats as one of the "tribes" that constitute the "Illyrian nation".[122]
Influenced by the ideas of the
Jukić's pupil and fellow friar Antun Knežević, was one of the main protagonists of the multireligious Bošnjak (Bosniak) identity as well, and even more vocal then friar Jukić.[130][131] Prior to that it was Franciscan Filip Lastrić (1700–1783) who first wrote on the commonality of the citizens in the Bosnian eyalet, regardless of their religion. In his work Epitome vetustatum provinciae Bosniensis (1765), he claimed that all inhabitants of the Bosnian province (eyalet) constituted "one people" of the same descent.[132][133]
Austro-Hungarian Empire
The conflict rapidly spread and came to involve several Balkan states and Great Powers, which eventually forced the Ottomans to cede administration of the country to Austria-Hungary through the Treaty of Berlin (1878).[134] After the
During the 20th century, Bosnian Muslims founded several cultural and welfare associations to promote and preserve their cultural identity. The most prominent associations were Gajret, Merhamet, Narodna Uzdanica and later Preporod. The Bosnian Muslim intelligentsia also gathered around the magazine Bosnia in the 1860s to promote the idea of a unified Bosniak nation. This Bosniak group would remain active for several decades, with the continuity of ideas and the use of the Bosniak name. From 1891 until 1910, they published a Latin-script magazine titled Bošnjak (Bosniak), which promoted the concept of Bosniakism (Bošnjaštvo) and openness toward European culture. Since that time the Bosniaks adopted European culture under the broader influence of the Habsburg Monarchy. At the same time they kept the peculiar characteristics of their Bosnian Islamic lifestyle.[136] These initial, but important initiatives were followed by a new magazine named Behar whose founders were Safvet-beg Bašagić (1870–1934), Edhem Mulabdić (1862–1954) and Osman Nuri Hadžić (1869–1937).[137]
After the occupation of Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1878, the Austrian administration of
After Kallay died in 1903, the official policy slowly drifted towards accepting the three-ethnic reality of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Ultimately, the failure of Austro-Hungarian ambitions to nurture a Bosniak identity amongst the Catholic and Orthodox led to almost exclusively Bosnian Muslims adhering to it, with 'Bosniakhood' consequently adopted as a Bosnian Muslim ethnic ideology by nationalist figures.[144]
In November 1881, upon introducing the Bosnian-Herzegovinian Infantry, the Austro-Hungarian government passed a Military Law (Wehrgesetz) imposing an obligation upon all Bosnian Muslims to serve in the Imperial Army, which led to widespread riots in December 1881 and throughout 1882; the Austrians appealed to the Mufti of Sarajevo, Mustafa Hilmi Hadžiomerović (born 1816) and he soon issued a Fatwa "calling on the Bosniaks to obey military Law."[145] Other important Muslim community leaders such as Mehmed-beg Kapetanović Ljubušak, later Mayor of Sarajevo, also appealed to young Muslim men to serve in the Habsburg military.
In 1903, the
Yugoslavia and World War II
After World War I, the
Politically, Bosnia and Herzegovina was split into four
World War II period
During World War II, Bosnian Muslim elite and notables issued resolutions or memorandums in various cities that publicly denounced Croat-Nazi collaborationist measures, laws and violence against Serbs: Prijedor (23 September), Sarajevo (the Resolution of Sarajevo Muslims of 12 October), Mostar (21 October), Banja Luka (12 November), Bijeljina (2 December) and Tuzla (11 December). The resolutions condemned the Ustaše in Bosnia and Herzegovina, both for their mistreatment of Muslims and for their attempts at turning Muslims and Serbs against one another.[158] One memorandum declared that since the beginning of the Ustaše regime, that Muslims dreaded the lawless activities that some Ustaše, some Croatian government authorities, and various illegal groups perpetrated against the Serbs.[159] A portion of the Bosnian Muslim population however sided with the Ustaše.[160] Muslims composed approximately 12 percent of the civil service and armed forces of the Independent State of Croatia.[161] Some of them also participated in Ustaše atrocities, while Bosnian Muslims in Nazi Waffen-SS units were responsible for massacres of Serbs in northwest and eastern Bosnia, most notably in Vlasenica.[162] At this time several massacres against Bosnian Muslims were carried out by Serb and Montenegrin Chetniks.[163][164][165]
It is estimated that 75,000 Muslims died in the war,
Post-WWII and SFRJ era
During the socialist Yugoslav period, the Muslims continued to be treated as a religious group instead of an ethnic group.
Bosnian War
During the war, the Bosniaks were subject to
At the outset of the Bosnian war, forces of the
The Bosnian Serbs had the upper hand due to heavier weaponry (despite less manpower) that was given to them by the Yugoslav People's Army and established control over most areas where Serbs had relative majority but also in areas where they were a significant minority in both rural and urban regions excluding the larger towns of Sarajevo and
Language
Most Bosniaks speak the
As result, paraphrases such as Serbo-Croat-Bosnian (SCB) or Bosnian/Croatian/Serbian (BCS) tend to be used in English on occasion.At the vernacular level, Bosniaks are more linguistically homogeneous than Serbs or Croats who also speak non-standard dialects beside Shtokavian. With respect to lexicon, Bosnian is characterized by its larger number of Ottoman Turkish (as well as Arabic and Persian) loanwords (called Orientalisms) in relation to the other Serbo-Croatian varieties.
The first official dictionary in the Bosnian language was published in 1992.
The modern Bosnian language principally uses the
Culture
Folklore
There are many signs of
National heroes are typically historical figures, whose lives and skills in battle are emphasized. These include figures such as Ban Kulin, the founder of medieval Bosnia who has come to acquire a legendary status. The historian William Miller wrote in 1921 that "even today, the people regard him as a favorite of the fairies, and his reign as a golden age.";[193]
Traditions and customs
The nation takes pride in the native melancholic folk songs sevdalinka, the precious medieval filigree manufactured by old Sarajevo craftsmen, and a wide array of traditional wisdom transmitted to newer generations by word of mouth, but in recent years written down in a number of books. Another prevalent tradition is "Muštuluk", whereby a gift is owed to any bringer of good news.[194]
Rural folk traditions in Bosnia include the shouted,
Probably the most distinctive and identifiably Bosniak of music, Sevdalinka is a kind of emotional, melancholic folk song that often describes sad subjects such as love and loss, the death of a dear person or heartbreak. Sevdalinkas were traditionally performed with a
Religion
The Bosnian Muslims (Bosniaks) are traditionally
In a 1998 public opinion poll, 78.3% of Bosniaks in the
Kjell Magnusson points out that religion played a major role in the processes that shaped the national movements and the formation of the new states in the Balkans after the Ottoman retreat, since the Ottomans distinguished peoples after their religious affiliations.[208] Although religion only plays a minor role in the daily lives of the ethnic groups of Bosnia and Herzegovina today, the following stereotypes are still rather current, namely, that the Serbs are Orthodox, the Croats Catholic and the Bosniaks Muslim; those native Bosnians who remained Christian and did not convert to Islam over time came to identify as ethnic Serb or Croat, helping to explain the apparent ethnic mix in Bosnia-Herzegovina. Still, however, there are a few individuals who violate the aforementioned pattern and practice other religions actively, often due to intermarriage.[209]
Surnames and given names
There are some Bosniak surnames of foreign origin, indicating that the founder of the family came from a place outside Bosnia and Herzegovina. Many such Bosniak surnames have Albanian, Vlach, Turkic or Arab origins. Examples of such surnames include Arnautović (from Arnaut - Turkish ethnonym used to denote Albanians), Vlasić (from Vlach people), Tatarević (from Tatar people) and Arapović (from Arap - Turkish ethnonym used to denote Arabs). There are also some surnames which are presumed to be of pre-Slavic origin. Some examples of such surnames may be of Illyrian or Celtic origin, such as the surname Mataruga and Motoruga.[210]
Given names or first names among Bosniaks have mostly
Symbols
The traditional symbol of the Bosniak people is a
This emblem was revived in 1992 as a symbol of Bosnian nationhood and represented the flag of the
Another Bosniak flag dates from the Ottoman era, and is a white crescent moon and star on a green background. The flag was also the symbol of the short-lived independent Bosnia in the 19th century and of the
Geographical distribution
Diaspora
There is a significant Bosniak diaspora in Europe, Turkey as well as in North America in such countries as the United States and Canada.
- Turkey: The community in Turkey has its origins predominantly in the exodus of Muslims from the Bosnia Eyalet taking place in the 19th and early 20th century as result of the collapse of Ottoman rule in the Balkans. According to estimates commissioned in 2008 by the National Security Council of Turkey as many as 2 million Turkish citizens are of Bosniak ancestry.[216] Bosniaks mostly live in the Marmara Region, in the north-west. The biggest Bosniak community in Turkey is in Istanbul; the borough Yenibosna (formerly Saraybosna, after Sarajevo), saw rapid migration from the Ottoman Balkans after the founding of the Republic of Turkey.[citation needed] There are notable Bosniak communities in İzmir, Karamürsel, Yalova, Bursa and Edirne.
- United States: The first Bosnian arrivals came around the 1860s. According to a 2000 estimate, there are some 350,000 Americans of Bosnian ancestry.[3] Bosniaks were early leaders in the establishment of Chicago's Muslim community. In 1906, they established Džemijetul Hajrije (The Benevolent Society) of Illinois to preserve the community's religious and national traditions as well as to provide mutual assistance for funerals and illness. The organization established chapters in Gary, Indiana, in 1913, and Butte, Montana, in 1916, and is the oldest existing Muslim organization in the United States. There are numerous Bosniak cultural, sport and religious associations. Bosnian-language newspapers and other periodicals are published in many states; the largest in the United States is the St. Louis based newspaper "Sabah". At the peak of the Bosnian presence in St. Louis 70,000 Bosnians lived in the city.[217]
- Canada: According to the Bosnian Canadians emigrated to Canada during and after the Bosnian War, although Bosnian migration dates back to the 19th century.[218] Traditional centers of residence and culture for people from Bosnia and Herzegovina are in Toronto, Montreal and Vancouver. Numerous Bosniak cultural, sport and religious associations, Bosnian-language newspapers and other periodicals are published in many states. The largest Bosnian organisation in Canada is the Congress of North American Bosniaks.[219]
Historiography
See also
Notes
References
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- ^ "Census of Population, Households and Dwellings in Montenegro 2011" (PDF). July 12, 2011. Archived (PDF) from the original on 27 July 2011. Retrieved 13 July 2011.
- ^ "About Bosniaks". December 2020. Archived from the original on 4 December 2022. Retrieved 1 January 2023.
- ^ Kosovo Census 2011, ask.rks-gov.net
- ^ Cro Census 2021, Dzs.hr
- ^ "Statistični urad RS - Popis 2002". Archived from the original on 30 May 2017. Retrieved 1 May 2016.
- ^ "Kilde: "Ældre bosniske flygtninge søger hjem"". Folkedrab.dk. Archived from the original on 2012-03-25. Retrieved 2012-01-05.
- ^ "Macedonian Census 2002" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2007-07-08. Retrieved 2012-01-05.
- ^ "Zašto je teško procijeniti broj Bosanaca i Hercegovaca u Australiji?". 17 September 2019. Archived from the original on 6 November 2023. Retrieved 17 September 2019.
- ^ ISBN 978-1-139-46782-7.
- ^ "Historical Construction and Development of Bosniak Nation". Retrieved 2019-07-26.
- ^ a b "Bosniak". Oxford English Dictionary (3rd ed.). Oxford University Press. September 2005.
- ^ Charles Knight (1836). The Penny Cyclopaedia. Vol. V. London: The Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge. p. 231.
- ^ "Bosnian". Oxford English Dictionary (3rd ed.). Oxford University Press. September 2005.
- ISBN 9781598842197.
- ISBN 9781850657675., p. 120; ..medieval Bosnia was a country of one people, of the single Bosnian people called the Bošnjani, who belonged to three confessions.
- ^ Vjekoslav Klaić (1882). Poviest Bosne do propasti kraljevstva. Troškom piščevim. p. 278.; Bošnjakom isti pradjedovi bili, koji i Poljakom (the ancestors of the Bosniak, same as those of the Pole)
- ^ Jędrzej Moraczewski (1844). Dzieje Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej. Vol. II. Poznań: Nakładem i drukiem N. Kamieńskiego, 1844. p. 259.
- ^ Muhamed Hadžijahić – Od tradicije do identiteta: geneza nacionalnog pitanja bosanskih Muslimana, 1974, p. 7; "Kralj Stjepan Tvrtković poslao je odmah ovome kralju "sjajno poslanstvo odličnih muževa", veli Vladislavov biograf pa nastavlja: "Ovi su, ispričavši porijeklo svoga plemena isticali, da su Bošnjacima bili isti pradjedovi kao i Poljacima te da im je zajednički jezik kojim govore i da se radi te srodnosti jezika i porijekla njihov kralj Tvrtko II živo raduje, što je Vladislav – kako se je pronio glas – sretan u svojim pothvatima"
- ^ Hrvatska enciklopedija (LZMK) – Bošnjaci Archived 2017-01-14 at the Wayback Machine
Bošnjaci, naziv za podanike bosanskih vladara u predosmansko doba, podanike sultana u osmansko doba, odnosno današnji naziv za najbrojniji od triju konstitutivnih naroda u BiH. Bošnjak, kao i stariji naziv Bošnjanin (u lat. vrelima Bosnensis), prvotno je ime koje označuje pripadništvo srednjovjekovnoj bosanskoj državi.
- ^ a b Indira Šabić (2014). Onomastička analiza bosanskohercegovačkih srednjovjekovnih administrativnih tekstova i stećaka (PDF). Osijek: Sveučilište Josipa Jurja Strossmayera. pp. 165–167. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2017-01-14. Retrieved 2015-03-17.
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- ^ ISBN 9781107455535.)
{{cite book}}
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The Bosnian wartime militia (Schutzkorps), which became known for its persecution of Serbs, was overwhelmingly Muslim.
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... arrested and interned some 5.500 prominent Serbs and sentenced to death some 460 persons, a new Schutzkorps, an auxiliary militia, widened the anti-Serb repression.
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- ^ Glasnik zemaljskog muzeja, 01/07/1894 – Vjerske starine iz Bosne i Hercegovine Scridb: "Glasnik Zemaljskog Muzeja 1894./god.6 knj.1". Archived from the original on 2017-02-24. Retrieved 2017-09-08.
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- ^ Velikonja 2003, p. 261.
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- ^ Magnusson 1994:336; Olsson 1994:24.
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- ^ Muslimanska licna imena: sa etimologijom, etimoloskom grafijom i sematikom Trece izdanje. Author: Senad Agic; El-Kalem; 7/1/1999 (Muslim personal names with etymology and semantics)
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Sources
Books
- Allworth, Edward (1994). Muslim Communities Reemerge: Historical Perspectives on Nationality, Politics, and Opposition in the Former Soviet Union and Yugoslavia. Duke University Press. ISBN 978-0-8223-1490-5.
- Basic, Denis (2009). The Roots of the Religious, Ethnic, and National Identity of the Bosnian-Herzegovinian Muslims. ISBN 9781109124637. Archived from the originalon 2014-06-28.
- ISBN 9781350003590.
- Bougarel, Xavier (2009). "Od "Muslimana" do "Bošnjaka": pitanje nacionalnog imena bosanskih muslimana" [From "Muslims" to "Bosniaks": the question of the national name of the Bosnian Muslims]. Rasprave o nacionalnom identitetu Bošnjaka – Zbornik radova [The discussions on the national identity of Bosniaks - a collection of papers].
{{cite book}}
:|journal=
ignored (help) - Bulić, Dejan (2013). "The Fortifications of the Late Antiquity and the Early Byzantine Period on the Later Territory of the South-Slavic Principalities, and their re-occupation". The World of the Slavs: Studies of the East, West and South Slavs: Civitas, Oppidas, Villas and Archeological Evidence (7th to 11th Centuries AD). Belgrade: The Institute for History. pp. 137–234. ISBN 9788677431044.
- Donia, Robert J.; Fine, John Van Antwerp Jr. (1994). Bosnia and Hercegovina: A Tradition Betrayed. C. Hurst & Co. Publishers. ISBN 978-1-85065-212-0.
- Fine, John Van Antwerp Jr. (1991). The Early Medieval Balkans: A Critical Survey from the Sixth to the Late Twelfth Century. University of Michigan Press. ISBN 978-0-472-08149-3.
- Friedman, Francine "The Bosnian Muslims: The Making of a Yugoslav Nation," in Melissa Bokovoy, Jill Irvine, and Carol Lilly, eds., State-Society Relations in Yugoslavia, 1945–1992, 1997
- Hoare, Marko Attila (1 February 2014). The Bosnian Muslims in the Second World War. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-936531-9.
- Kaimakamova, Miliana; Salamon, Maciej (2007). Byzantium, new peoples, new powers: the Byzantino-Slav contact zone, from the ninth to the fifteenth century. Towarzystwo Wydawnicze "Historia Iagellonica". ISBN 978-83-88737-83-1.
- Karčić, Fikret (1995). The Bosniaks and the Challenges of Modernity: Late Ottoman and Hapsburg Times.
- Malcolm, Noel (1996) [1994]. Bosnia: A Short History (2nd ed.). New York University Press. ISBN 978-0-8147-5561-7.
- Pinson, Mark (1994). The Muslims of Bosnia-Herzegovina: Their Historic Development from the Middle Ages to the Dissolution of Yugoslavia. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-932885-09-8.
- Ramet, Sabrina P. (2006). The Three Yugoslavias: State-Building and Legitimation, 1918–2004. Indiana University Press. ISBN 0-253-34656-8. Retrieved 28 September 2019.
- ISBN 0-7146-5625-9.
- Tomasevich, Jozo (2001). War and Revolution in Yugoslavia, 1941–1945: Occupation and Collaboration. Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-0-8047-0857-9.
- ISBN 978-1-58544-226-3.
Journals
- Babuna, Aydin (1999). "Nationalism and the Bosnian muslims". East European Quarterly. 33 (2): 195–.
- Bauer, Deron. The ethno-religious identity of Bosnian Muslims: A literature-based ethnography. Fuller Theological Seminary, School of Intercultural Studies, 2012.
- Friedman, Francine (2000). "The muslim slavs of Bosnia and Herzegovina (with reference to the Sandzak of Novi Pazar): Islam as national identity". Nationalities Papers. 28 (1): 165–180. S2CID 154938106.
- Hamourtziadou, Lily (2002). "The Bosniaks: from nation to threat". Journal of Southern Europe and the Balkans. 4 (2): 141–156. S2CID 153647785.
- Kofman, Daniel (2001). "Self-determination in a multiethnic state: Bosnians, Bosniaks, Croats and Serbs". Reconstructing Multiethnic Societies: The Case of Bosnia-Herzegovina: 31–62.
- Larise, Dunja (2015). "The Islamic Community in Bosnia and Herzegovina and nation building by muslims/Bosniaks in the Western Balkans". Nationalities Papers. 43 (2): 195–212. S2CID 128622843.
- Lopasic, Alexander (1981). "Bosnian muslims: a search for identity". Bulletin. 8 (2): 115–125. .
- Lomonosov, Matvey (2012). "Illyrianism in Bosnian style: Balkan antiquity in contemporary national mythology and identity construction among the Bosniaks" (PDF). The South Slav Journal. 31 (3–4): 61–83.[dead link]
- Ramet, Pedro (1985). "Primordial ethnicity or modern nationalism: The case of Yugoslavia's Muslims". Nationalities Papers. 13 (2): 165–187. S2CID 162161893.
External links
- Bosniaks in United States
- IGBD – Bosniaks in Germany (in Bosnian and German)
- Congress of North American Bosniaks
- BAACBH.org – Bosniak American Advisory Council for Bosnia-Herzegovina
- Bosniaks – Wiktionary entry for Bosniaks
- BOSNJACI.net (in Bosnian)
- Facebook page