Bosporus
Bosporus Strait | |
---|---|
İstanbul Boğazı ( Turkish Straits | |
Basin countries | Turkey |
Max. length | 31 km (19 mi) |
Min. width | 700 m (2,300 ft) |
Max. depth | 110 m (360 ft) |
The Bosporus or Bosphorus Strait (
Most of the shores of the Bosporus Strait, except for the area to the north, are heavily settled, with the city of Istanbul's metropolitan population of 17 million inhabitants extending inland from both banks.
The Bosporus Strait and the
Sections of the shore of the Bosporus in Istanbul have been reinforced with concrete or rubble and those sections of the Strait prone to deposition are periodically dredged.
Name
The name of the strait comes from the
The English spelling with -ph- (Bosphor) is not justified by the ancient Greek name, and dictionaries prefer the spelling with -p-.[a] However -ph- occurs as a variant in medieval Latin (as Bosphor, and occasionally Bosphorus or Bospherus), and in medieval Greek sometimes as Βόσφορος,[9] giving rise to the French Bosphore, the Spanish Bósforo, the Italian Bosforo and the Russian Босфор. The 12th-century Greek scholar John Tzetzes calls it Damaliten Bosporon (after Damalis), but he also reports that in popular usage the strait was known as Prosphorion during his day,[10] the name of the most ancient northern harbour of Constantinople. In English, the preferred spelling tends to be Bosphorus.
Historically, the Bosporus was also known as the "Strait of Constantinople", or the
The term eventually came to be used as the common noun βόσπορος, meaning "a strait", and was also formerly applied to the
.Geography
As a maritime waterway, the Bosporus connects the Black Sea to the Sea of Marmara and thence to the Aegean and Mediterranean seas via the Dardanelles. It also connects various seas along the
There is one very small island in the Bosporus just off Kuruçeşme. Now generally known as
Formation
The exact cause and date of the formation of the Bosporus remain a subject of debate among geologists. One recent hypothesis, dubbed the Black Sea deluge hypothesis, which was launched by a study of the same name in 1997 by two scientists from Columbia University, postulates that the Bosporus was flooded around 5600 BCE (revised to 6800 BCE in 2003) when the rising waters of the Mediterranean Sea and the Sea of Marmara broke through to the Black Sea, which at the time, according to the hypothesis, was a low-lying body of fresh water.[citation needed]
Many geologists,[who?] however, claim that the strait is much older, even if relatively young on a geologic timescale.[14]
Present morphology
The limits of the Bosporus are defined as the line connecting the lighthouses of Rumeli Feneri and Anadolu Feneri in the north, and between the Ahırkapı Feneri and the Kadıköy İnciburnu Feneri in the south ("Fener" is Turkish for lighthouse). Between these limits, the strait is 31 km (17 nmi) long, with a width of 3,329 m (1.798 nmi) at the northern entrance and 2,826 m (1.526 nmi) at the southern entrance. Its maximum width is 3,420 m (1.85 nmi) between Umuryeri and Büyükdere Limanı, and minimum width is 700 m (0.38 nmi) between Kandilli Point and Aşiyan.
The depth of the Bosporus varies from 13 to 110 m (43 to 361 ft) in midstream with an average of 65 m (213 ft). The deepest point is between Kandilli and
The southbound flow of water is 16 000 m3/s (fresh water at the surface) and the northbound flow is 11 000 m3/s (salt water near the bottom).[16] Dan Parsons and researchers at the University of Leeds School of Earth and Environment describe a Black Sea undersea river.
The Golden Horn is an estuary off the main strait that historically acted as a moat to protect Constantinople from attack, as well as providing sheltered anchorage for the imperial navies of various empires until the 19th century, after which it became a historic neighbourhood at the heart of Istanbul.
Newer explorations
Before the 20th century it was already known that the Black Sea and the Sea of Marmara flow into each other in a geographic example of "density flow". Then in August 2010, a continuous 'underwater channel' of
The team studied the detailed flow within these channels and its findings included that:
The channel complex and the density flow provide the ideal natural laboratory for investigating and detailing the structure of the flow field through the channel. Our initial findings show that the flow in these channels is quite different to the flow in river channels on land. Specifically, as flow moves around a bend it spirals in the opposite direction in the deep sea compared to the spiral found in river channels on land. This is important in understanding the sedimentology and layers of sediment deposited by these systems.[18]
The central tenet of the Black Sea deluge hypothesis is that as the ocean rose 72.5 metres (238 ft) at the end of the last Ice Age when the massive ice sheets melted, the sealed Bosporus was overwhelmed by a spectacular flood that increased the then fresh water Black Sea Lake by 50%, and drove people back from the shores for many months. This hypothesis was supported by the findings of undersea explorer Robert Ballard, who discovered settlements along the old shoreline; scientists dated the flood to 7500 BP or 5500 BC from fresh-salt water microflora. Driven out by the rapidly rising water, which must have been terrifying and inexplicable, people spread to all corners of the Western world carrying the story of a major flood. As the waters surged, they scoured a network of sea-floor channels less resistant to denser suspended solids in liquid, which remains a very active layer today.
The first images of these submarine channels showing them to be of great size,
The project was led by Jeff Peakall and Daniel Parsons at the University of Leeds, in collaboration with the University of Southampton, Memorial University of Newfoundland, and the Institute of Marine Sciences. The survey was run and coordinated from the Institute of Marine Sciences research ship, the R/V Koca Piri Reis.
Villages
The shores of the Bosporus were once lined with small fishing villages that had grown up since Byzantine times but really came into their own in the 19th century. Until the early 20th century most were only accessible by boat (known as caiques) along the Bosporus since there were no coast roads. Today the villages are no more than suburbs of Greater Istanbul but many retain the memory of their original village status in the suffix '-köy (village' to their names. e.g. Ortaköy, Yeniköy, Arnavutköy, Çengelköy and Vaniköy. These villages often had distinct identities associated with agriculture: Arnavutköy, for example, was associated with strawberry-growing while Çengelköy was famous for its sweet cucumbers.
Human history
As part of the only passage between the Black Sea and the Mediterranean, the Bosporus has always been of great importance from a commercial and military point of view, and it remains strategically important today. It is a major sea access route for numerous countries, including
Ancient Greek, Persian, Roman and Byzantine eras (pre-1453)
The strategic importance of the Bosporus dates back millennia. In the 5th century BC the Greek city-state of Athens, which depended on grain imports from the Black Sea ports of Scythia, maintained critical alliances with cities which controlled the straits, such as the Megarian colony of Byzantium.
In an attempt to subdue the
The Byzantines called the Bosporus "Stenon" and used the following major toponyms in the area:[25]
- on the European side:
- Bosporios Akra
- Argyropolis
- St. Mamas
- St. Phokas
- Hestiai or Michaelion
- Phoneus
- Anaplous or Sosthenion
- on the Asian side:
- Hieron tower
- Eirenaion
- Anthemiou
- Sophianai
- Bithynian Chrysopolis
The strategic significance of the Strait was one of the factors in the decision of the Roman Emperor
Ottoman era (1453–1922)
On 29 May 1453, the then-emergent
The event also marked the end of the Byzantines—the final remnants of the Roman Empire—and the transfer of the control of the Bosporus into Ottoman hands. The Ottomans then made Constantinople their new capital, and the base from which they expanded their empire in the centuries that followed.
At its peak between the 16th and 18th centuries, the Ottoman Empire was able to use the strategic importance of the Bosporus to wrest control of the entire Black Sea area, which they regarded as an "Ottoman lake", from which Russian warships were prohibited.[27]
Subsequently, several international treaties have governed access to the Strait. Under the
Summer Embassies
During the 19th century many of the foreign powers represented in Constantinople maintained second embassies up the Bosporus and would relocate their staff there during the hot, humid summer months. Most of these summer embassies were on the European shore at Yeniköy (Austrian), Tarabya (German, English, French, Italian) and Büyükdere (Spanish, Russian). Some of the buildings still survive today although the British Summer Embassy burnt down in 1911 and the Italian Summer Embassy, a fine building by Raimondo d'Aronco, survives in very dilapidated condition.[30]
Turkish republican era (1923–present)
Following the
Turkey was neutral in the
Turkey joined NATO in 1952, thus affording the straits even more strategic importance as a commercial and military waterway.
During the early 21st century, the
Istanbul Canal
In 2011, Turkey proposed to build a 50 km (31 mi) canal west of the Bosporus, suggesting that it would reduce the risk presented to the Bosporus by oil tankers and other cargo ships.[34][35] The project proved highly controversial and, as of 2022[update], work had not been started on building the canal even though a route for it had been established.[36]
In mythology
The Bosphorus takes its name from the
According to
Crossings
Maritime
The Bosporus is traversed by numerous passenger and vehicular ferries daily, as well as by recreational and fishing boats ranging from dinghies to yachts owned by both public and private entities.
The Strait also serves a significant amount of international commercial shipping traffic in the form of
In 2011, the Turkish Government started to discuss creating a man-made canal roughly 80 kilometres (50 mi) long that would run north–south through
In 2022 the dues levied by Turkey for freight ships increased 500% to US$4 per ton, the first change since 1983.[40]
The Bosporus is fairly deep and there is no definite limit on the depth and length of a ship, but ships over 150 metres long or 10 metres deep must pre-book their passage. Those over 300 metres long must follow a special clearance procedure. There is an air draft limit of 57 metres.[41][42]
Land bridges
Two
Name | Opening date | Design | Total length | Width | Height | Longest span | Clearance below | Lanes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
15 July Martyrs Bridge | 30 October 1973 | Suspension bridge | 1,560 m (5,120 ft) | 33.4 m (110 ft) | 165 m (541 ft) | 1,074 m (3,524 ft) | 64 m (210 ft) | 6 lanes of Motorway O1 |
Fatih Sultan Mehmet Bridge | 3 July 1988 | Suspension bridge | 1,510 m (4,950 ft) | 39 m (128 ft) | 105 m (344 ft) | 1,090 m (3,580 ft) | 64 m (210 ft) | 8 lanes of Motorway O2 |
Yavuz Sultan Selim Bridge | 26 August 2016 | Hybrid cable-stayed, suspension bridge | 2,164 m (7,100 ft) | 58.4 m (192 ft) | 322 m (1,056 ft) | 1,408 m (4,619 ft) | 73 m (240 ft) | 8 lanes of Motorway O7 and 1 double-track railway |
Submarine
The Marmaray project, featuring a 13.7 km (8.5 mi) long undersea railway tunnel, opened on 29 October 2013.[46] Approximately 1,400 m (4,593 ft) of the tunnel runs under the strait, at a depth of about 55 m (180 ft).
An undersea water supply tunnel with a length of 5,551 m (18,212 ft),[47] named the Bosporus Water Tunnel, was constructed in 2012 to transfer water from the Melen Creek in Düzce Province (to the east of the Bosporus strait, in northwestern Anatolia) to the European side of Istanbul, a distance of 185 km (115 mi).[47][48]
The
Up to four submarine fibre optics lines (MedNautilus and possibly others) approach Istanbul, coming from the Mediterranean through the Dardanelles.[50][51]
Strategic importance
The Bosporus is the only way for Bulgaria, Georgia, Romania, Russia (south-western part) and Ukraine to reach the Mediterranean Sea and other seas. Thus sovereignty over the straits is an important issue for these countries, as well as Turkey, the state the Bosporus actually flows through.
Turkey does not receive tolls from ships passing through the strait. Turkey's military has broad powers in accordance with the terms of the Montreux Convention. As of 2021, the Bosporus Command is located on the shores of the Bosporus and the military ships connected to the Command are anchored in the Bosporus waters.
Located on a peninsula at the intersection of the Black Sea, the Bosporus and the Marmara Sea, Istanbul has historically been one of the most protected and hardest-to-conquer cities from Roman times to the Ottoman Empire. Divided by the Bosporus, it is one of very few intercontinental cities in the world.
Sightseeing
The Bosporus has 620
Most of the public ferries that traverse the Strait leave from Eminönü on the historic peninsula of Istanbul and travel as far as Anadolu Kavağı near the Black Sea. On the way they call briefly at points on both the European and Asian shores. Private ferries, also leaving from Eminönü, travel only as far as one of the first two Bosporus bridges. Ferries from Eminönü also travel as far as Rumeli Kavaği, stopping only at points on the European shore, while other ferries from Üsküdar travel as far as Anadolu Kavağı, stopping only at points on the Asian shore. Frequent public ferries from Eminõnü, Karaköy, Beşiktaş, Kadıköy and Usküdar offer short hops from one side of the Bosporus to the other throughout the day.[52]
Catamaran
Tourist cruises are available from various points along the Bosporus, including Ortaköy. The prices vary considerably, and some feature music and dining.
Architecture
The many yalı (waterside mansions) which were constructed along the shores of the Bosporus during the Ottoman period have long been synonymous with the Strait. Those that still preserve their original form are among the most expensive real estate in Turkey although many have been lost to time, weather and 'accidental' fires. The oldest yalı on the European shore is the Şerifler Yalı at Emirgan which was built in the 18th century and belonged for a while to the Şerifs, the hereditary rulers of Mecca. It is still in good condition unlike the oldest yalı on the Asian side which is the Köprülü Amcazade Hüseyin Paşa Yalı at Anadolu Hisarı, built in 1698. Only the central section of this yalı survives and it has been behind hoardings promising restoration since 2009.[53]
Most of the yalıs originally sat right on the water's edge and came with private docks and ports where boats (caiques) could be stored. On the Anatolian shore some yalıs are still right beside the water but on the European shore most now stand back behind a coast road built on reclaimed land.[citation needed]
The original yalıs usually had two main sections: the selamlık which was the public area and the part of the house used by the men, and the haremlik which was the private part of the house reserved for women and the family. These were the luxurious dwellings of the wealthy and some came with their own private hamams (Turkish baths).[citation needed]
Egyptian legacy
During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the Egyptian royal family took a great liking to the Bosporus and often spent their summers on its shores. They left behind a legacy of fine buildings on or overlooking its shores, including the building at Bebek that now houses the Egyptian Consulate and the Khedive's Villa (Hıdiv Kasrı) high on the hill above Çubuklu.[54]
See also
- Black Sea trade and economy
- Great Istanbul Tunnel, a proposed three-level road-rail undersea tunnel
- Istanbul Canal
- List of maritime incidents in the Turkish Straits
- Public transport in Istanbul
- Rail transport in Turkey
- Eastern Bosphorus
Notes
- ^ The American Heritage Dictionary's online version has only this spelling and its search function does not find anything for the spelling Bosphorus. The Columbia Encyclopedia specifies that the pronunciation of the alternative spelling ph is also /p/, but dictionaries also list the pronunciation /f/ for this spelling.
- ^ There is a certain (Oxonian) tradition of equating the name "Oxford" with "Bosporus", see e.g. Wolstenholme Parr (1820), Memoir on the propriety of the word Oxford, esp. p. 18.[6]
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- ^ Sickler, Friedrich (1824). Handbuch der alten Geographie für Gymnasien und zum Selbstunterricht (in German). Kassel: J. J. Bonné. p. 551.
Die ihr entgegenstehende Landspitze hieß auch Bous oder Damalis, mit einer ehernen coloss. Bildsäule einer Kuh; aber hier war es auch, wo der Athen. Chares seiner Frau, der Damalis, ein Grabmal errichten ließ so dass die größere Wahrscheinlichkeit dafür ist, daß wenigstens diese Landspitze eher von der Frau Damalis als von der Prinzessin Jo ihren Namen erhalten habe.
- ^ Lewis, Charlton T.; Short, Charles (1879). "Bosporus". A Latin Dictionary. Oxford: Clarendon Press – via Perseus Digital Library.
- ^ Müller, Carl (1861). Geographi graeci minores (in Latin). Paris: Didot. p. 7.
Herodotus (4, 85) nominat Bosporum Calchedoniæ (τῆς Καλχηδονίς τὸν Βόσπορον); Strabo, os Byzantiacum (p. 125 στόμα Βυζαντιακόν, p. 318 στόμα τὸ κατὰ Βυζάντιον); Joannes Tzetzes (Chil. 1, 886) appellat Bosporum Damaliten (τὸν Δαμαλίτην Βόσπορον) sua ætate nuncupatum vulgo Prosphorium.
- ^ Bischoff, Friedrich Heinrich Theodor (1829). Verleichendes wörterbuch der alten, mittleren und neuen geographie (in German). Gotha: Becker. pp. 195–196.
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- ^ Metz 1995, pp. 23, 25
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- ^ Bosphorus (Istanbul) Strait (2014 North Maritime)
- ^ Maritime Traffic Regulations for the Turkish Straits and the Marmara Region, entered into force on 1 July 1994 (United Nations)
- ^ a b "3rd Bosphorus bridge opening ceremony". TRT World. 25 August 2016. Archived from the original on 28 August 2016.
- ^ a b "Istanbul's mega project Yavuz Sultan Selim Bridge to open in large ceremony". Daily Sabah. 25 August 2016. Archived from the original on 26 October 2016.
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- ^ Nayır, Mehmet (19 May 2012). "Melen Boğaz'ı geçiyor". Sabah Ekonomi (in Turkish). Retrieved 11 June 2012.
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External links
- . . 1914.