Duma
A duma (
The term boyar duma is used to refer to advisory councils in Russia from the 10th to 17th centuries. Starting in the 18th century, city dumas were formed across Russia.
The first formally constituted state duma was the
Since 1993, the
Etymology
The Russian word is inherited from the
Boyar duma
The term boyar duma (боярская дума, boyarskaya duma) is used to refer to the councils of
Municipal dumas
Under the reign of
Under the reign of Alexander II, several reforms were enacted during the 1860s and 1870s. These included the creation of local political bodies known as zemstvoes.[5] All owners of houses, tax-paying merchants and workmen are enrolled on lists in a descending order according to their assessed wealth. The total valuation is then divided into three equal parts, representing three groups of electors very unequal in number, each of which elects an equal number of delegates to the municipal duma. The executive is in the hands of an elective mayor and an uprava, which consists of several members elected by the duma. Under Alexander III, however, by laws promulgated in 1892 and 1894, the municipal dumas were subordinated to the governors in the same way as the zemstvos. In 1894 municipal institutions, with still more restricted powers, were granted to several towns in Siberia, and in 1895 to some in Caucasia.
State dumas
Russian Empire
Under the pressure of the Russian Revolution of 1905, on 6 August 1905, Sergei Witte issued a manifesto about the convocation of the Duma, initially thought to be an advisory organ. In the subsequent October Manifesto, Nicholas II pledged to introduce basic civil liberties, provide for broad participation in the State Duma, and endow the Duma with legislative and oversight powers.
However, Nicholas II was determined to retain his autocratic power. Just before the creation of the Duma in May 1906, the Tsar issued the Fundamental Laws. It stated in part that the Tsar's ministers could not be appointed by, and were not responsible to, the Duma, thus denying responsible government at the executive level. Furthermore, the Tsar had the power to dismiss the Duma and announce new elections whenever he wished. At this first meeting of the Duma members proposed that political prisoners should be released, trade unions given rights and land reform be introduced. Nicholas II rejected these suggestions and dissolved the assembly in July, 1906.[6]
The imperial State Duma was elected four times: in 1906, twice in 1907, and in 1912.
Russian Federation
The State Duma (Russian: Государственная дума, Gosudarstvennaya Duma, common abbreviation: Госдума, Gosduma) in Russia is the
References
- ^ Vasmer, Max. Этимологический словарь Макса Фасмера.
- Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 7 October 2022.
- ^ Paul Bushkovitch, Peter the Great (Rowman and Littlefield, 2001).
- ^ Gustave Alef, "Reflections on the Boyar Duma in the Reign of Ivan III", The Slavonic and East European Review, 45, 104 (1967): 76–123.
- ISBN 978-0132206990.
- ^ "The Duma". Retrieved 8 November 2016.