Brazilian Expeditionary Force

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Brazilian Expeditionary Force
Força Expedicionária Brasileira
Brazilian Expeditionary Force shoulder sleeve insignia (Army component) with a smoking snake
Active1942–1945
Country Brazil
AllegianceUnited Nations
BranchBrazilian Army
Brazilian Air Force
TypeExpeditionary Force
RoleAerial warfare
Combined arms
Expeditionary warfare
Size25,900
Engagements
Commanders
Notable
commanders
Mascarenhas de Moraes
, General Commander

Olympio Falconiere da Cunha, General Inspector

Euclidés Zenóbio da Costa, Divisional Infantry Commander

Oswaldo Cordeiro de Farias, Divisional Artillery Commander

The Brazilian Expeditionary Force (

Mediterranean Theatre of World War II. It numbered around 25,900 men, including a full infantry division, liaison flight, and fighter squadron.[2]

Placed under

generals and close to 900 officers. The division lost 948 men killed in action across all three services.[4][2]

Vargas era Brazil was the only independent South American country to send combat troops overseas during the Second World War.[1] Known for its tenacity and bravery, the FEB was well-regarded by both allies and adversaries; it served with distinction in several battles, most notably at Collecchio, Camaiore, Monte Prano, and Serchio Valley.[1] Brazil's navy and air force played important roles in protecting Allied shipping and crippling Axis maritime power, inflicting disproportionately high losses on enemy munitions, supplies, and infrastructure.[1]

Overview

Brazil's participation in World War II on the

contribution to the war took place in its waning years and was primarily naval, although it also sent a small military mission to the Western Front
. In the years leading up to World War II, Brazil was the biggest non-European consumer of German products and ranked ninth among Germany's trading partners overall. It also hosted a large and influential German community that engendered closer ties to Germany.

As in 1914, Brazil in 1939 maintained a position of neutrality, initially trading with both Allied and

Joint Brazil-U.S. Defense Commission, chaired by U.S. Army Major General James Garesche Ord, which was broadly aimed at strengthening military ties between the countries; however, its central goal was to reduce the likelihood of Axis attacks on U.S. shipping across the Atlantic and minimize Axis influence in South America.[5]

Although Brazil was officially neutral, it increasingly cooperated with the Allies, particularly the U.S., shortly after the latter entered

Pan American States Conference, which took place in Rio de Janeiro from 15–28 January 1942, was convened in the wake of the U.S. declaration of war against the Axis powers. The meeting centered on U.S. offers of economic assistance to Latin America countries in return for security cooperation and the severing of diplomatic ties with Axis members; Brazil consequently ended diplomatic relations with Germany, Japan, and Italy by the end of January.[6]

Pursuant to the conference, Brazil permitted the U.S. to set up air bases on its territory in return for assistance in developing a domestic steel industry,

VP-52
bombing squadron, later becoming the largest overseas U.S. airbase. Brazil also hosted U.S. Task Force 3, which included a squadron equipped to attack submarines and merchant vessels attempting to trade with Japan.

Nevertheless, unlike in 1917, the Brazilian government sought to avoid war and instead maintain economically beneficial ties with both sides.[7] Notwithstanding its formal neutrality and reticence to declare war, Brazil's cooperation with the U.S. and break in diplomatic relations prompted immediate German reprisals. From the end of January to August 1942, German U-boats sank 18 Brazilian merchant vessels; the spate of attacks was especially severe after June 16, when Hitler personally called for a "submarine blitz" against Brazil, having considered its closer ties with the U.S. to be tantamount to an act of war.[8] By mid-August, the Germans were targeting shipping closer to Brazil's coast; U-507 alone sank five Brazilian vessels in two days, causing more than 600 deaths:[9]

  • On August 15, the Baependi, traveling from Salvador to Recife, was torpedoed at 19:12. Its 215 passengers and 55 crew members were lost.
  • Less than an hour later, U-507 torpedoed the Araraquara, also traveling from Salvador towards the north of the country. Of the 142 people on board, 131 died.
  • Seven hours after the second attack, the Anníbal Benévolo was attacked, killing all 83 passengers and all but four of its 71 crew.
  • On August 17, close to the city of
    Vitória
    , the Itagiba was hit at 10:45, resulting in 36 deaths.
  • Another Brazilian ship, the Arará, traveling from Salvador to
    Santos
    , was targeted as it stopped to help the crippled Itagiba, suffering 20 fatalities.

In all, 21 German and two Italian submarines sank 36 Brazilian merchant ships, resulting in the deaths of nearly 2,000 people. The wave of August attacks proved to be a breaking point, especially since the victims included army soldiers and religious pilgrims. Brazil "erupted in a wave of revulsions" as anti-Axis demonstrations, some of them violent, spread across most major cities, including Rio de Janeiro. Protestors burned the flags of the Axis powers and chanted "We want war!"; in some cases, German communities were harassed.[10] The passive position of the Vargas government proved untenable in the face of public opinion, and on August 22, within a week of the last U-boat attack, the Brazilian cabinet approved a declaration of war against the Axis nations.[11]

U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt and Brazilian President Getúlio Vargas aboard USS Humboldt, during the Potenji River Conference, with Harry Hopkins, Chairman of the British-American Assignment Board (left), and Jefferson Caffery, U.S. Ambassador to Brazil (right).

Although Brazil continued to provide much needed supplies, war material, and strategic territory for foreign bases, the decision to contribute troops came several months later, at the

Getulio Vargas resulted in greater political, economic, and military cooperation between the U.S. and Brazil, including invitations for the latter to play a larger role in the postwar global order. Vargas and Foreign Minister Oswaldo Aranha
saw the commitment of soldiers as a means of solidifying the strategic partnership with the U.S., and of enhancing Brazilian prestige and influence on the global stage.

Navy

The participation of the Brazilian Navy in World War II was not directly connected to the FEB and the Italian Campaign, as it was largely engaged in the Battle of the Atlantic. Axis naval attacks caused nearly 1,600 deaths, including almost 500 civilians, 470 sailors of the merchant marine, 570 sailors of the Navy; roughly one in seven Brazilian sailors would perish in the campaign. A total of 36 ships were sunk by the Germans, with an additional three lost (and 350 killed) in accidental sinkings.[12]

The main task of the Brazilian Navy was, together with the Allies, to ensure the safety of ships sailing between the central and

depth charges
. According to German documents, the Brazilian Navy attacked German submarines a total of 66 times.

The Brazilian Navy is confirmed to have destroyed twelve Axis submarines along its coasts: the Italian submarine Archimede and the German U-128, U-161, U-164, U-199, U-507, U-513, U-590, U-591, U-598, U-604 and U-662.[14][15][16]

Among the warships lost by the Brazilian Navy were the minelayer BZ Camaqua, which capsized during a storm while escorting a convoy in July 1944, and the light cruiser BZ Bahia due to a gunnery accident;[17][18] the majority of the latter's crew were lost.[19] Of the three Brazilian military ships lost during the war, only the freighter-troopship Vital de Oliveira was due to the action of an enemy submarine, being sunk by the U-861 on July 20, 1944.[20]

Brazilian fleet during World War II

Class Boat Displacement Type Origin Note Photo
Minas Geraes-class battleship Minas Geraes
São Paulo 		20,900 tons Dreadnought battleship  United Kingdom
Bahia-class cruiser Bahia
Rio Grande do Sul 		3,100 tonnes Scout cruiser  United Kingdom
Marcílio Dias-class destroyer M1 Marcílio Dias
M2 Mariz e Barros
M3 Greenhalgh 		1,900 tonnes Destroyer  United States
Acasta-class destroyer Maranhão 950 tonnes Destroyer  United Kingdom
Pará-class destroyer Piauí
Mato Grosso
Rio Grande do Norte
Paraíba
Santa Catarina
Sergipe 		570 tonnes Destroyer  United Kingdom
Cannon-class destroyer Babitonga
Baependi
Benevente
Beberibe
Bocaina
Bauru
Bertioga
Bracui 		1,500 tonnes Destroyer escort  United States
Carioca-class corvette C1 Carioca
C2 Cananéia
C3 Camocim
C4 Cabedelo
C5 Caravelas
C6 Camaquã 		818 tonnes Corvette  Brazil
Pernambuco-class Monitor Pernambuco
Paraguassú 		650 tonnes Gunboat  Brazil
PC461-class submarine chaser G1 Guaporé
G2 Gurupi
G3 Guaíba
G4 Guarupá
G5 Guajará
G6 Goiânia
G7 Grajaú
G8 Graúna 		450 tonnes Submarine chaser/patrol boat  United States
Tupy-class submarine S11 Tupy
S12 Tymbira
S13 Tamoyo
 1,450 tonnes Submarine  Italy
Humayta-class submarine Humaytá 1,900 tonnes Submarine  Italy

Command

Mascarenhas de Morais (back seat, right), Brazilian army officer and commander of the FEB, with General Dwight D. Eisenhower
, commander of the Allied forces in Europe during World War II.

The Brazilian 1st Division of the FEB was subordinate to the

US IV Corps of Major General Willis D. Crittenberger. The entry for the Gothic Line order of battle
provides the layout for the Allied and German armies in Italy.

FEB headquarters functioned as an administrative headquarters and link to the Brazilian high command under the secretary of war, General Eurico Gaspar Dutra in Rio de Janeiro. General Mascarenhas de Morais (later marshal) was the commander of the FEB, with General Zenóbio da Costa as chief of the 6th Regimental Combat Team (RCT) of Caçapava (the first FEB RCT to land in Italy), and General Cordeiro de Farias as commander of artillery.

Theoretically, the FEB was organized as a standard U.S. infantry division of that time, complete in all aspects, down to its

São João del Rei. Each RCT had about 5,000 men (corresponding in size to today brigades), divided in three then called "battalions" consisting of four companies each, including supporting units for combat, and other army branches, like artillery, engineering, and cavalry.[23] The Brazilian Air Force Fighter squadron was itself under the Mediterranean Allied Tactical Air Force.[24]

Campaign

Preparations

American propaganda film Brazil at War (1943), praising Brazil for joining the Allies, and attempting to show similarities between Brazil and the United States

Soon after Brazil declared war on the Axis, it began a popular

industry, health care, and education, which was needed to support the war effort with material and human resources. Further, an action plan to circumvent these limitations (like the Calogeras Plan
of the previous World War) was out of the question because many Brazilian military officers believed that a Nazi-Fascist defeat in Europe would increase demands for democracy within Brazil. At the time, Brazil had a military regime. It had been openly authoritarian from 1937 and sympathetic to Nazi-fascist regimes until 1941. Brazil was thus precluded from pursuing a line of autonomous action in the conflict, and found it difficult to take even a modest role in it.

Faced with the government's passivity and unwillingness, Assis Chateaubriand, a mass media magnate, negotiated with US officials stationed in Brazil, for the creation of an expeditionary army division, composed of volunteers from all of Latin America. This division would be financed by him, led by a Brazilian general, and trained by American officials. This initiative was curtailed by the Brazilian government in early 1943.[27]

Almost two years later, Brazil officially entered the war and sent troops to the

Italian Front and train there.[28]

In the end, the Brazilian government gathered a force of one

Italian Campaign.[29]

Arrival in Italy

Brazilian soldiers greet Italian civilians in the city of Massarosa, September 1944.

On July 2, 1944, the first 5,000 FEB soldiers, the 6th RCT, left Brazil for Europe aboard the

Mountain Infantry Battalion
.

Brazilian soldiers celebrate Brazilian Independence Day in Italy during World War II, September 1944.

The FEB dedicated its first weeks in Italy to acquiring the proper equipment to fight on Italian terrain, and to training under American command.[31] The preparation in Brazil, despite the two years' interval since the declaration of war, had proved almost worthless. Among the veterans of that campaign, there was a consensus that only combat could adequately prepare the soldier, regardless of the quality of training received earlier.[32][33] In August, the troops moved to Tarquinia, 350 km north of Naples, where Clark's army was based. In November, the FEB joined General Crittenberger's US IV Corps.

The Brazilians joined a

Moroccans and Algerians.[34][35][36]

The Germans made much of the political aspect of Brazil's presence in Italy; propaganda was targeted specifically at Brazilians, in the form of leaflets and a Portuguese-language, hour-long daily radio broadcast from Berlin Radio called Hora AuriVerde (GoldenGreen Hour).[37]

Combat

Soldiers of the FEB during the second assault of the Battle of Monte Castello on 29 November 1944.
Brazilian soldiers in a trench during the Battle of Montese, April 1945.

The FEB achieved battlefield successes at Massarosa, Camaiore, Mount Prano, Monte Acuto, San Quirico, Gallicano, Barga, Monte Castello, La Serra, Castelnuovo di Vergato, Soprassasso, Montese, Paravento, Zocca, Marano sul Panaro, Collecchio and Fornovo di Taro.[38]

Map of the Brazilian actions in northern Italy, 1944–1945. National Archives of Brazil.

The first missions the Brazilians undertook in close connection with the

8th Indian Infantry Division
before it was repelled.

Between the end of February and the beginning of March 1945, in preparation for the

U.S. 10th Mountain Division were able to capture important positions in the northern Apennines (noteworthy in the Brazilian sector, for Monte Castello and Castelnuovo), which deprived the Germans of key artillery positions in the mountains, whose effective fire had since the fall of 1944 blocked the Allied path to Bologna.[40][41][42]

Frankly, you Brazilians are either crazy or very brave. I never saw anyone advance against machine-guns and well-defended positions with such disregard for life ... You are devils — A German captain to a captured FEB lieutenant.[43]

In the US Fifth Army's sector, the final offensive on the Italian Front began on 14 April, after a bombardment of 2,000 artillery pieces; an attack carried out by the troops of US IV Corps led by the Brazilian Division took Montese. After the first day of the Allied offensive, the Germans, without much effort, had stopped the main attack of IV Corps led by the US 10th Mountain Division, causing significant casualties among the troops of that formation. The Germans were misled into thinking that the FEB's raid over Montese, using M8 armoured cars and Sherman Tanks, could be the real main Allied objective in that sector, which led them to shell the Brazilians with 1,800 artillery rounds from the total of 2,800 used against all four Allied divisions in that sector during the days of the battle for Montese,[44] when they tried unsuccessfully to take Montese back from the Brazilians. After that, the breaking of the Germans' lines to the north by forces of IV Corps became unavoidable.[45] On the right, the Polish Division, from the British 8th Army, and the US 34th Infantry Division

, from Fifth Army, entered Bologna on 21 April.

On 25 April the Italian resistance movement started a general partisan insurrection at the same time as Brazilian troops arrived at Parma and the Americans at Modena and Genoa. The British 8th Army advanced towards Venice and Trieste.

At the

1st Bersaglieri "Italia" Division.[citation needed
]

148. Infanterie-Division (plus remnants of the 90. Grenadier-Division
), ending the Battle of Collecchio, on 29 April 1945.

This took the German Command by surprise as it had planned for these troops to join forces with the German-Italian Army of Liguria to counterattack against the Fifth Army. Fifth Army had advanced, as is inevitable in these situations, in a fast but diffuse and disarranged way uncoordinated with air support, and had left some gaps on its left flank and to the rear. The Axis forces had left many bridges intact along the

Po River to facilitate a counter-attack. German Army Command was already negotiating a truce in Caserta, and hoped that a counterattack would improve the conditions for surrender. The events in Fornovo disrupted the German plan, as much by the disarray of their troops as by the delay it caused.[46] This, added to the news of Adolf Hitler's death and the taking of Berlin by the Red Army
, left the German Command in Italy with no option but to accept the demand for the unconditional surrender of its troops.

In their final advance, the Brazilians reached

Susa
. That same day brought the announcement of the end of hostilities in Italy.

Air force

1st Fighter Squadron

1oGAVCA P-47s carried the "Senta a Pua!" emblem as nose art along with the Brazilian Air Force stars
German General Otto Fretter-Pico surrendering to Brazilian General Olímpio Falconière.
Generalleutnant Otto Fretter-Pico (left) surrendering to General Olímpio Falconière da Cunha (center).
Arrival of aviators of the Brazilian Air Force who participated in the FEB, 1945.

The

PBY-5A Catalina that had sunk U-199 (which had been operating off the Brazilian coast).[47]

Among the 48 pilots of the Brazilian Unit who carried out war missions, there was a total of 22 losses; five of the pilots were killed by anti-aircraft fire, eight had their planes shot down and bailed out over enemy territory, six had to give up flying operations on medical orders and three died in flying accidents.

The squadron trained for combat at

Republic P-47D Thunderbolt.[48]

Badge of Brazilian Fighter Squadron

On September 19, 1944 the 1oGAVCA left for Italy, arriving at Livorno on October 6.

12th Air Force, into the XXII Tactical Air Command.[49][50]

The Brazilian pilots initially flew from 31 October 1944, as individual elements of flights attached to 350th FG squadrons, at first in affiliation flights and progressively taking part in more dangerous missions. Less than two weeks later, on November 11, the Brazilian Squadron started its own operations flying from its base at

Po Valley. By then, the strength of the "Group" had fallen to the standard size of an air squadron: 23 pilots, since some had been killed, others shot down and captured, while others had been relieved from their duties on medical grounds due to wounds or combat fatigue.[51]

On 22 April 1945, the three remaining flights took off at five-minute intervals, starting at 8:30 AM, to destroy bridges, barges, and motorized vehicles in the San Benedetto region. At 10:00 AM, a flight took off for an armed reconnaissance mission south of Mantua. They destroyed more than 80 German military vehicles, including tanks. By the end of the day, the Brazilian Squadron had flown 44 individual missions and destroyed a high number of vehicles and barges. On this day Brazilians flew the most sorties of the war; consequently, Brazil commemorates April 22 as 'Brazilian Fighter Arm' Day. The 1st Brazilian Fighter Squadron accomplished 445 missions, with a total of 2,546 flights and 5,465 hours of flight on active service. It destroyed 1,304 motor-vehicles, 13 railway wagons, 8 armoured cars, 25 railway and highway bridges and 31 fuel tanks and munition depots.

In all, the 1oGAVCA flew a total of 445 missions, 2,550 individual sorties, and 5,465 combat flight hours, from November 11, 1944 to May 6, 1945. The XXII Tactical Air Command acknowledged the efficiency of the Brazilian Squadron by noting that although it flew only 5% of the total of missions carried out by all squadrons under its control, it accomplished a much higher percentage of the total destruction wrought:

  • 85% of the ammunition depots
  • 36% of the fuel depots
  • 28% of the bridges (19% damaged)
  • 15% of motor vehicles (13% damaged)
  • 10% of horse-drawn vehicles (10% damaged)[52]

Total of operations of the First Brazilian Fighter Squadron in the Italy Campaign:

Missions accomplished 445
Offensive missions 2,546
Defensive missions 4
Hours of flight in war operations 5,465
Total hours of flight accomplished 6,144
Total Bombs dropped 4,442
Incendiary Bombs (F.T.I) 166
Fragmentation Bombs (260 lbs) 16
Fragmentation Bombs (90 lbs) 72
Demolition Bombs (1.000 lbs) 8
Demolition Bombs (500 lbs) 4,180
Approximate total tonnage of bombs 1,010
Rounds of .50 caliber ammunition fired 1,180,200
Total rockets fired 850
Liters of gasoline consumed 4,058,651
Targets/Objectives Destroyed Damaged
Railway engines 01 13
Motorized transport 470 303
Railway and tank cars 63 163
Armored cars 07 11
Animal drawn vehicles 79 19
Railway and highway bridges 04 14
Railway and highway cuttings 55 00
Buildings occupied by the enemy 129 92
Camps occupied by the enemy 18 14
Command posts 02 02
Artillery positions 43 07
Factories 04 03
Miscellaneous buildings 39 04
Fuel depots 06 02
Refineries 01 01
Radar stations 00 02

On April 22, 1986, the 1st Fighter "Group" of the Brazilian Air Force was awarded the United States Presidential Unit Citation for its actions in the Po Valley region of Italy in World War II.[53]

1st Liaison & Observer Flight

In contrast to the 1st Fight Squadron, which was an Air Force unit that operated in support of the army, the 1st "Liaison & Observer Flight" (Portuguese acronym: E.L.O.) was directly under the command of the FEB.[54] Formed in late July 1944, the 1st E.L.O. consisted of reservist officers, namely Air Force pilots and Army artillery observers, who flew together aboard Piper L-4H Cubs. This air unit accompanied the Brazilian division throughout its Italian campaign.[49]

Aftermath

Monument to the dead of World War II in Rio de Janeiro
, Brazil

The FEB participated in the post-war occupation of Piacenza, Lodi, and Alessandria. U.S. leaders wished for Brazilian troops to take part in the Allied occupation of Europe, but in early June 1945, Brazil's secretary of war ordered that the unit be subordinate to the commander of the first military region in Rio de Janeiro; it was recalled to Brazil by the end of 1945 and, amid U.S. objections, was dissolved as a distinct military formation.[55]

Hundreds of Brazilians who perished in the final offensive were buried in the

National Monument to the Dead of World War II. Shortly afterward, a body was found remaining in the former cemetery, and the Brazilian government inaugurated a new Tomb of the Unknown Soldier
on the site in 1967.

Brazil's participation in World War II was more extensive than in any foreign conflict outside its region. Its main contribution was to the south Atlantic campaign, which was described by U.S. rear admiral

the Normandy landings in June 1944 and the invasion of southern France that August. Nevertheless, the FEB was viewed by contemporaries as a largely effective fighting force, which "completed all the missions confided to it and compared favorably with the American divisions of the Fourth Corps."[58]

Nickname

Then-President Dilma Rousseff with veterans of the FEB (known as pracinhas) during a ceremony to commemorate the 70th anniversary of the end of World War II, 8 May 2015.

Due to the Brazilian regime's unwillingness to get more deeply involved in the Allied war effort, by early 1943 a popular saying was: "Mais provável uma cobra fumar um cachimbo, do que a FEB ir para a frente da luta" (literally: "It's more likely for a snake to smoke a pipe than for the FEB to go the front and fight").

when pigs fly"; soldiers in the division subsequently called themselves Cobras Fumantes (literally, Smoking Snakes) and wore a shoulder patch depicting a green snake smoking a pipe. It was also common for Brazilian soldiers to write on their mortars, "A Cobra Está Fumando..." (literally: "The Snake Is Smoking...").[citation needed
] After the war the meaning was reversed, signifying that something will definitively happen in a furious and worse way. With that second meaning the use of the expression "A Cobra Vai Fumar!" (literally: "The Snake Will Smoke!") has been retained in Brazilian Portuguese until the present.

See also

Footnotes

  1. ^ Portuguese: Mais fácil uma cobra fumar um cachimbo, do que a FEB embarcar para o combate.

Notes

  1. ^ a b c d e Stilwell, Blake. "Why Brazilian troops had the best unit patch of World War II". Business Insider. Retrieved October 22, 2021.
  2. ^ a b Ibidem Maximiano, Bonalume, Ricardo N. & Bujeiro, 2011.
  3. ^ Frank D. McCann, "Brazil and World War II: The Forgotten Ally. What did you do in the war, Ze Carioca?" University of New Hampshire, p. 61.
  4. ^ Frank D. MacCann – 'Estudios Interdisciplinarios de America Latina y el Caribe', vol. 6, No. 2, 1995.
  5. Office of the Chief of Military History, Department of the Army, The Framework of Hemisphere Defense
    , 1960, p. 319
  6. ^ "Avalon Project – A Decade of American Foreign Policy 1941–1949 – Havana Meeting of Ministers of Foreign Affairs of the American Republics, July 21–30, 1940". Avalon.law.yale.edu. Retrieved 2016-09-10
  7. ^ Jefferson Caffery to Cordell Hull, Rio, April 22, 1939, 832.00/1255, RG59, National Archives (NA) Washington.
  8. ISSN 0792-7061
    .
  9. ^ VEJA Edição Especial – O Brasil na Guerra Archived December 5, 2013, at the Wayback Machine
  10. ^ Hélio Silva, "1942 Guerra no Continente"
  11. ISSN 0792-7061
    .
  12. ^ Relação de navios brasileiros afundados[permanent dead link]
  13. ^ Votaw: 1950, pp. 10579ff. 1951, p. 93.
  14. ^ Heden, 2006. Pages: 58 (6, Wed.), 59 (13, Wed.), 64 (15, Thu.), 66 (17, Mon.), 70 (9, Fri.), 72–73 (19, Mon), 74 (30, Fri. and 31, Sat.); Chapters 6 (German Submarine Losses) & 7 (Italian Submarine Losses).
  15. ^ Several, James L. p. 17, section "1.16.5 Brazil".
  16. ^ Barone, 2013. Chapter 2 (final).
  17. ^ "Allied War Losses". u-boat.net. Retrieved May 20, 2015.
  18. ^ Bonalume, 1995. p. 216.
  19. ^ "BZ Bahia (C 12)". u-boat.net. Retrieved May 20, 2015.
  20. ^ Rohwer, 1999. p. 183.
  21. ^ Several authors, 1949. Pages 294; 394; 414–15.
  22. ^ Due to the strong sexism in Brazilian society at that time, the participation of women in the FEB was not viewed favorably by the authorities, being discouraged officially and unofficially, even behind the lines in logistics services, in key sectors such as military nursing. In this area there was a boycott attempt, not only by male Brazilian military doctors, but also by women who were in a position of influence in national politics; See Moser, 2009, Page 141.
  23. motorcycles, were critical to the mobility of troops. More on this topic can be seen in: Nafziger 2000, and Worley 2006
    (Page 85).
  24. ^ Maximiano, Bonalume & Bujeiro 2011. Page 36
  25. ISBN 8571643962
  26. ^ Silva, Hélio, "1944 o Brasil na Guerra"
  27. ^ Ibidem Morais 1994, pp. 431 to 434
  28. ^ Lochery, 2014. Parts 4 and 5; Chapters 12-16.
  29. ^ "The United States News" U.S. News Publishing Corporation, 1944. Volume 16, Issues 14–26 – Page 52
  30. ^ Command Magazine issue 51, page 34
  31. ISBN 9781932946222
    page 10, 2nd paragraph
  32. ^ Maximiano, 2010. Chapter 5, pg 222 to 1st paragraph of page 223
  33. A Long Way Gone: Memoirs of a Boy Soldier
    " from his "enlistment" on page 105 to his formal ending of combat detoxification, page 181
  34. ISBN 9780312577094
    Page 523
  35. ISBN 089950129X
    Pages 152–53, 438.
  36. ISBN 0739101951
    Page 118, 3rd §
  37. ^ "Propaganda leaflets of World War 2: Italian theater of operations/Po Valley Campaign". Archived from the original on April 29, 2018. Retrieved November 8, 2014.
  38. ^ Edwards, 2010. Page 89.
  39. ^ R.Brooks, The War North of Rome, p.220 to 224
  40. ^ Baumgardner, 1998. Pages 26 to 32.
  41. ^ Bohmler, 1964. End of Chapter IX
  42. ^ Clark, 1950/2007, p.608
  43. ^ Emilio Varoli, "Aventuras de um prisoneiro na Alemanha Nazista," in Depoimento de Oficiais da Reserva Sohre a F.E.B., p. 447.
  44. ISBN 85-362-2076-7
  45. ISBN 85-7011-219-X
  46. ^ Ibidem. Bohmler, 1964.
  47. ^ Ibidem Maximiano, Bonalume & Bujeiro 2011. P. 35-36.
  48. ^ a b Dias de Cunha, Rudnei. "Republic P-47 Thunderbolt". www.rudnei.cunha.nom.br. Archived from the original on February 23, 2019. Retrieved February 23, 2019.
  49. ^ a b Ibidem Maximiano, Bonalume & Bujeiro 2011.
  50. ^ Buyers, 2004. P.98-99.
  51. ^ Buyers, 2004. P.391
  52. ^ Ibidem Buyers, 2004.
  53. ^ "Sinopse e Créditos". December 10, 2004. Archived from the original on December 10, 2004. Retrieved September 28, 2018.
  54. ^ Maximiano, Bonalume & Bujeiro 2011. P.12, 17 & 35.
  55. ^ Moraes, 1966. Last Chapter
  56. ^ Samuel Eliot Morison, The Battle of the Atlantic, 1939-1943 (Boston, 1964), p. 376. For the Brazilian navy, see Dino Willy Cozza, "A Marinha do Brasil na II Grande Guerra," Revista do Exercito Brasileiro, Vol. 131, No.3 (Jul./Set. 1994), pp. 64-66; Herbert Campbell, "A Marinha Mercante ea II Grande Guerra," ibid., pp. 71-77. Campbell provides a listing and data on the ships sunk.
  57. ^ loriano de Lima Brayner, A Verdade Sohre a FEB: Mem6rias de um Chefe de Estado�Maior, na Campanha da Italia, 1943- 1945 (Rio de Janeiro: Ed. Civilizayiio Brasileira, 1968), p. 234
  58. ^ FRANK D. McCANN, Brazil and World War II: The Forgotten Ally. What did you do in the war, Zé Carioca? University of New Hampshire.
  59. ^ (in Portuguese) FEB's participation in World War II Archived September 27, 2007, at the Wayback Machine. Brazilian Army Retrieved July 31, 2007

Bibliography

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