Breastfeeding difficulties
Breastfeeding difficulties | |
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Infant nurses through nipple shield, a device which can assist with certain breastfeeding difficulties. | |
Specialty | Obstetrics, pediatrics, midwifery |
Breastfeeding difficulties refers to problems that arise from
Difficulties can arise both in connection with the act of breastfeeding and with the health of the nursing infant.
Breastfeeding problems
While breastfeeding difficulties are not uncommon, putting the baby to the breast as soon as possible after birth helps to avoid many problems. The policy of the American Academy of Pediatrics on breastfeeding instructs to, "delay weighing, measuring, bathing, needle-sticks, and eye prophylaxis until after the first feeding is completed."[2] Many breastfeeding difficulties can be resolved with research based hospital procedures, properly trained nurses and hospital staff, speech pathologists and lactation consultants.[3] Another source of information is the volunteer-based breastfeeding promotion organization, La Leche League.
A variety of factors and conditions can interfere with successful breastfeeding:
- Ankyloglossia (tongue tie)[4][5]
- Formula feeding
- Distractions or interruptions during feeds
- Long separations from the mother
- Tachypnea (rapid breathing) such as in surfactant deficiency, respiratory distress syndromeor other infant medical conditions
- Presence of an actual physical barrier between mother and infant
- Swallowing difficulties such as with prematurity and coordination of sucking, swallowing and breathing, or gastro-intestinal tract abnormalities like tracheo-oesophageal fistula.
- Pain resulting from surgical procedures like circumcision, blood tests, or vaccinations.[6][failed verification]
- Latching onto the breast[7]
- Hypoplastic breasts/insufficient glandular tissue
- Galactorrhea
- Lactation failure
- Polycystic ovarian syndrome
- Diabetes
- Maternal stress[8]
- Insufficient rest/support of the mother during the first 6 weeks post-partum
- Early return to work due to lack of financial support/maternity leave of mother[9]
- Cleft palate[7]
- Thrush[10]
- Hypoglycemia or hyperglycemia[11]
- Hypotonia, or "low-tone" infant disorder[12]
- Hyperlactation syndrome[13]
- Overactive let-down[14]
- enteral or gavage feeding - inserting a feeding tube into the stomach to provide enough breast milk or a substitute. This is often done together with Kangaroo care (prolonged skin-to-skin contact with the mother) which makes later breastfeeding easier. For some suckling difficulties, such as may happen with cleft lip/palate, the baby can be fed with a Haberman Feeder.
- Dysphoric milk ejection reflex (D-MER) is a newly recognized condition affecting lactating women that is characterized by an abrupt dysphoria, or negative emotions that occur just before milk release and continuing not more than a few minutes. Preliminary testing tells us that D-MER is treatable and preliminary research tells us that inappropriate dopamine activity at the time of the milk ejection reflex is the cause of D-MER.[16]
Low milk supply
- Primary lactation failure: occurs when the mother has a condition incompatible with full milk production, for example breast hypoplasia, breast reduction surgery, or bilateral mastectomy.
- Secondary lactation failure: milk production that is low due to preventable factors, such as formula supplementation, poor milk transfer by the baby, or unrelieved breast engorgement.[17]
- Chronic low milk supply is estimated to be experienced by 10-15% of women.[18]
Breast pain
Pain often interferes with successful breastfeeding. It is cited as the second most common cause for the abandonment of exclusive breastfeeding after perceived low milk supply.[19]
Inverted nipples
Engorgement
Breast engorgement is the sense of breast fullness experienced by most women within 36 hours of delivery. Normally, this is a painless sensation of "heaviness". Breastfeeding on demand is the primary way of preventing painful engorgement.
When the breast overfills with milk it becomes painful. Engorgement comes from not getting enough milk from the breast. It happens about 3 to 7 days after delivery and occurs more often in first time mothers. The increased blood supply, the accumulated milk and the swelling all contribute to the painful engorgement.[21] Engorgement may affect the areola, the periphery of the breast or the entire breast, and may interfere with breastfeeding both from the pain and also from the distortion of the normal shape of the areola/nipple. This makes it harder for the baby to latch on properly for feeding. Latching may occur over only part of the areola. This can irritate the nipple more, and may lead to ineffective drainage of breast milk and more pain. Reverse pressure softening (RPS) is a technique that can soften the areola enabling deeper latching and more milk transfer; RPS involves gentle positive pressure in the direction of the chest wall from the fingertips around the areola.[22] Engorgement may begin as a result of several factors such as nipple pain, improper feeding technique, infrequent feeding or infant-mother separation.
To prevent or treat engorgement, remove the milk from the breast, by breastfeeding, expressing or pumping. Gentle massage can help start the milk flow and so reduce the pressure. The reduced pressure softens the areola, perhaps even allowing the infant to feed. Warm water or warm compresses and expressing some milk before feeding can also help make breastfeeding more effective. Some researchers have suggested that after breastfeeding, mothers should pump and/or apply cold compresses to reduce swelling pain and vascularity even more.[23] One published study suggested the use of "chilled cabbage leaves" applied to the breasts. Attempts to reproduce this technique met with mixed results.[24] Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs or paracetamol (acetaminophen) may relieve the pain. A warm shower and using cold compresses to help ease the discomfort.[23]
Nipple pain
Sore
Candidiasis
Symptoms of
Both mother and baby must be treated to get rid of this infection.
Another non-prescription treatment of candidia is gentian violet.[28] It usually works, and relief is rapid. It is messy, and will stain clothing. The baby's lips will turn purple, but the purple will disappear after a few days.
Milk stasis
Milk stasis is when the milk ducts are blocked and cannot drain properly, usually due to swelling and insufficient breast emptying during the engorgement phase. This may affect only a part of the breast and is not associated with any infection. It can be treated by varying the baby's feeding position and applying heat before feeding. If it happens more than once, further evaluation is needed. Milk stasis is an urgent matter for mothers who wish to breastfeed, as failure to remove milk from the breasts causes milk production to decrease and eventually stop.
Mastitis
Mastitis is an
Overactive let-down
Overactive let-down (OALD) is the forceful ejection of milk from the breast during breastfeeding. The forceful spray of milk can cause the baby to consume too much milk too quickly as well as to swallow air during the period of rapid swallowing following the let-down.
Raynaud's of the nipple
Nipple pain can be caused by vasospasm of the nipple. In essence, blood does not flow properly to the nipple which causes the nipple to blanch. This can be caused by trauma to the nipple through early breastfeeding or candidal infection of the nipple. The pain is intense during the latch stage and in between breastfeeding sessions there is a throbbing pain when the nipple is blanched. The nipple can be massaged to help blood flow return to reduce pain, as well as avoiding cold. In some instances, heart medication, nifedipine, is used to help the blood flow return to the nipple.[31]
Infant health problems
Infants with classic
Weak sucking reflex
Artificial teats (nipples) or dummies (pacifiers) can suppress the sucking reflex in infants. In addition, when a baby is put to the breast for shorter periods of time, milk production decreases. The time spent sucking by the infant on the pacifier or artificial teat reduces the time on the breast.[35][36] The CDC also currently (2022) reports that early use of pacifiers can have a negative outcome on the success of breastfeeding and they suggest that it should be delayed until breastfeeding is firmly established.[37]
Transmission of infection
Tuberculosis
It is not safe for mothers with active, untreated tuberculosis to breastfeed until they are no longer contagious.[2] According to the American Academy of Pediatrics 2006 Redbook:
Women with tuberculosis who have been treated appropriately for 2 or more weeks and who are not considered contagious may breastfeed. Women with tuberculosis disease suspected of being contagious should refrain from breastfeeding or any other close contact with the infant because of potential transmission through respiratory tract droplets (see Tuberculosis, p 678). Mycobacterium tuberculosis rarely causes mastitis or a breast abscess, but if a breast abscess caused by M. tuberculosis is present, breastfeeding should be discontinued until the mother no longer is contagious.
In areas where BCG vaccination is the standard of care, the
HIV
Research published in the
Transmission of drugs and toxins
Medications
The vast majority of over the counter and prescription medicines are compatible with breastfeeding, but there are some that might be passed onto the child through the milk.[48]
Tobacco smoke
If one does continue
The main concern about smoking and breastfeeding is that infants may have smoking-induced reductions to the milk iodine content.[49] Smoking can adversely affect the lactation process by decreasing milk production and altering the milk composition. Smoking reduces daily milk output by roughly 250–300 mL. Not only will this be problematic on a daily basis for not producing enough milk, it will also cause the mother to wean her baby early.[50] The altered milk composition also caused infants to exhibit daily behaviors such as colic and crying which can promote early weaning, again something that is not beneficial to the infant.[49]
Also, the nicotine obtained from smoking travels through a woman into her breast milk, thus giving nicotine to her child.[51]
Heavy use of
Other substance abuse
With respect to alcohol, the American Academy of Pediatrics states that when breastfeeding, "moderation is definitely advised" and recommends waiting for 2 hours after drinking before nursing or pumping.[54] A 2014 review found that "even in a theoretical case of binge drinking, the children would not be subjected to clinically relevant amounts of alcohol [through breastmilk]", and would have no adverse effects on children as long as drinking is "occasional".[55]
If the mother consumes too much caffeine, it can cause irritability, sleeplessness, nervousness and increased feeding in the breastfed infant. Moderate use (one to two cups per day of coffee, tea, or cola) usually produces no effect.[56] Breastfeeding mothers are advised to restrict or avoid caffeine if her baby reacts negatively to it.[57] Cigarette smoking is thought to increase the effects of caffeine in the baby.[58]
Cannabis
Cannabis is listed by the American Association of Pediatrics as a compound that transfers into human breast milk. Research demonstrated that certain compounds in marijuana have a very long half-life.[59]
Diet
An exclusively breastfed baby depends on breast milk completely so it is important for the mother to maintain a healthy lifestyle, and especially a good diet.[60] Consumption of 1500–1800 calories per day could coincide with a weight loss of 450 grams (one pound) per week.[61] While mothers in famine conditions can produce milk with highly nutritional content, a malnourished mother may produce milk with decreased levels of several micronutrients such as iron, zinc, and vitamin B12.[34] She may also have a lower supply than well-fed mothers.
There are no foods that are absolutely contraindicated during breastfeeding, but a baby may show sensitivity to particular foods that the mother eats.
Workplaces
Many mothers have to return to work soon after their babies have been born. If their employers and fellow employees do not support mothers in breastfeeding (for example, providing a private breastfeeding room containing a fridge where mothers can express and safely store breast milk), mothers might stop breastfeeding. This is not ideal for their infants. A Cochrane review assessed the effects of workplace interventions to support and promote breastfeeding among mothers returning to work after the birth of their babies.[62] The review authors comprehensively searched in 2012 for studies addressing this question but found no eligible studies. "The return to work can impact the amount of breastmilk that your body produces due to the stress and changes of leaving your baby."
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