Culture of the United Kingdom

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(Redirected from
British Culture
)

The British Museum is one of the most visited museums in the world.
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Culture of the United Kingdom
History
People
Historic peoples

Modern ethnicities

Languages
Folklore
Cuisine
Festivals
Religion
Art
Literature
Music and Performing arts
Media
Sport
Monuments
Symbols

The culture of the United Kingdom is influenced by its combined nations' history; its historically Christian religious life, its interaction with the cultures of Europe, the individual cultures of England, Wales and Scotland and the impact of the British Empire. The culture of the United Kingdom may also colloquially be referred to as British culture; Northern Ireland, though not geographically part of Great Britain, may still be considered as having a place within British culture. Although British culture is a distinct entity, the individual cultures of England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland are diverse. There have been varying degrees of overlap and distinctiveness between these four cultures.[1]

cinema, art, architecture and television. The UK is also the home of the Church of England, the state church and mother church of the Anglican Communion, the third-largest Christian denomination. Britain contains some of the world's oldest universities, has made many contributions to philosophy, science, technology and medicine, and is the birthplace of many prominent scientists and inventions. The Industrial Revolution began in the UK and had a profound effect on socio-economic
and cultural conditions around the world.

British culture has been influenced by historical and modern migration, the historical invasions of Great Britain, and the British Empire. As a result of the British Empire, significant British influence can be observed in the language, law, culture and institutions of its former colonies, most of which are members of the Commonwealth of Nations. A subset of these states form the Anglosphere, and are among Britain's closest allies.[3][4] British colonies and dominions influenced British culture in turn, particularly British cuisine.[5]

Sport is an important part of British culture, and numerous sports originated in the country including cricket, football, tennis and rugby.[6] The UK has been described as a "cultural superpower",[7][8] and London has been described as a world cultural capital.[9][10] A global opinion poll for the BBC saw the UK ranked the third most positively viewed nation in the world (behind Germany and Canada) in 2013 and 2014.[11][12]

History

Throughout its history, the culture of Great Britain has primarily consisted of the separate native traditions of England, Scotland and Wales. With regard to cultural influences, prior to the expansion of the British Empire, the island had been most notably influenced by French culture (via the Normans), Scandinavian culture (via the Vikings) and Italian culture (via the Romans).

The arrival of Celtic and Germanic tribes influenced Britain's early development.[13][14] The Celtic peoples introduced unique languages, traditions, and social structures. Subsequently, the migrations of Germanic tribes, such as the Anglo-Saxons, further influenced Britain's cultural landscape. The ancient Roman occupation of Britain, lasting almost 400 years, also impacted the linguistic and cultural identity of Great Britain.[15]

Following the expansion of the British Empire, England, Scotland and Wales absorbed different peoples from around the world, and, post-World War II, Britain developed a more diverse cultural landscape through higher levels of immigration. Today, it has a sizable immigrant population, and encompasses the cultures of British people from various backgrounds, with South Asian, Continental European, African and Caribbean descent being most prevalent.[16]

Language

Main article: Languages of the United Kingdom
The Old English heroic poem Beowulf is located in the British Library.

First spoken in

Ulster Scots, and British Sign Language
.

In Wales, all pupils at state schools must either be taught through the medium of Welsh or study it as an additional language until age 16, and the

Gaelic Language (Scotland) Act, passed by the Scottish Parliament in 2005, recognised Gaelic as an official language of Scotland and required the creation of a national plan for Gaelic to provide strategic direction for the development of the Gaelic language.[b] The Cornish language is a revived language that became extinct as a first language in Cornwall
in the late 18th century.

Regional accents

Main article: Regional accents of English

Dialects and regional accents vary heavily amongst the four countries of the United Kingdom, as well as within the countries themselves. This is partially the result of the long history of immigration to the UK, for example Northern English dialects contain many words with Old Norse roots.[18] Scottish English, Welsh English, and Hiberno-Irish are varieties of English distinct from both English English and the native languages of those countries. Received Pronunciation is the Standard English accent in England and Wales, while in Scotland Scottish Standard English is a distinct dialect. Although these accents have a high social prestige, since the 1960s a greater permissiveness toward regional English varieties has taken hold in education.[19]

The great variety of British accents is often noted, with nearby regions often having highly distinct dialects and accents, for example there are large differences between Scouse and Mancunian despite Liverpool and Manchester being only 35 miles (56 km) apart.[20][21] Dialectal English is often found in literature, for example Emily Brontë's novel Wuthering Heights contains Yorkshire dialect.[22]

Arts

Literature

Main article:
Literature of the United Kingdom

The United Kingdom inherited the literary traditions of England, Scotland and Wales. These include Arthurian literature and its Welsh origins, Norse-influenced Old English literature, the works of English authors Geoffrey Chaucer and William Shakespeare, and Scots works such as John Barbour's The Brus.

Robert Burns is regarded as the national poet of Scotland.[23]

The early 18th century period of British literature is known as the Augustan Age and included the development of the novel. Daniel Defoe's Robinson Crusoe (1719) and Moll Flanders (1722) are often seen as the first English novels, however the development of the novel took place in a wider literary context that included the rise of prose satires – which reached a high point with Gulliver's Travels – and earlier foreign works like the Spanish Don Quixote.[24] Also linked to the Augustan period is Samuel Johnson's A Dictionary of the English Language. Published in 1755, it was viewed as the pre-eminent British dictionary until the completion of the Oxford English Dictionary 150 years later.[25]

The subsequent Romantic period showed a flowering of poetry comparable with the Renaissance 200 years earlier, and a revival of interest in vernacular literature. In Scotland the poetry of Robert Burns revived interest in Scots literature, and the Weaver Poets of Ulster were influenced by literature from Scotland. In Wales the late 18th century saw the revival of the eisteddfod tradition, inspired by Iolo Morganwg. The period also saw the publication of A Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1792), by Mary Wollstonecraft, is one of the earliest works of feminist philosophy.

The late Georgian and Victorian era saw a renewed focus on the novel. A key theme of these novels was social commentary. Early in the period Jane Austen satirised the lifestyle of the gentry and nobility, while the later novels of Charles Dickens often used humour and keen observations to criticise poverty and social stratification. The three Brontë sisters and George Eliot commented on Northern England and the Midlands respectively, though all four women wrote under male pen names during their lifetimes, partly to deflect anti-feminist criticism. Nevertheless, openly female authors achieved considerable success in the period, such as the predominantly religious poems of Elizabeth Barrett Browning and Christina Rossetti.

Rudyard Kipling exemplifies the British Empire's influence on British literature. His novels The Jungle Book and The Man Who Would Be King are both set in British India, the poem If— evokes the concept of the "stiff upper lip", while The White Man's Burden demonstrates a white supremacist Imperialist outlook.[26]

Welsh native Roald Dahl is frequently ranked the best children's author in British polls.[27]

war poets and writers such as Wilfred Owen, Siegfried Sassoon, and Rupert Brooke, who wrote (often paradoxically) of their expectations of war, and their experiences in the trenches. Initially idealistic and patriotic in tone, as the war progressed the tone of the movement became increasingly sombre and pacifistic.[28] The beginning of the twentieth century also saw the Celtic Revival stimulate a new appreciation of traditional Irish literature, while the Scottish Renaissance brought modernism to Scottish literature
as well as an interest in new forms in the literatures of Scottish Gaelic and Scots. The English novel developed in the 20th century into much greater variety and it remains today the dominant English literary form.

The contemporary British literary scene is marked by awards such as the

RELX Group.[32]

Theatre

Main article: Theatre of the United Kingdom
William Shakespeare has had a significant impact on British theatre and drama.

From its formation in 1707 the United Kingdom has had a vibrant tradition of theatre, much of it inherited from England, Scotland and Wales. The Union of the Crowns coincided with the decline of highbrow and provocative Restoration comedy in favour of sentimental comedy, domestic tragedy such as George Lillo's The London Merchant (1731), and by an overwhelming interest in Italian opera. Popular entertainment became more important in this period than ever before, with fair-booth burlesque and mixed forms that are the ancestors of the English music hall. These forms flourished at the expense of other forms of English drama, which went into a long period of decline. In Scotland the opposite occurred, with the emergence of specifically Scottish plays including John Home's Douglas and the works of Walter Scott, which included original plays as well as adaptations of his Waverley novels. The late 19th century saw revival of English theatre with arrival of Irishmen

Academy of Dramatic Art at Her Majesty's Theatre in 1904.[33]

The early twentieth century was dominated by

Royal Ballet. Elsewhere the Royal Shakespeare Company was founded in 1959 at Stratford-upon-Avon
, and continues to mainly stage Shakespeare's plays.

Contemporary British theatre is focused on the West End, London's major theatre district. The Theatre Royal, Drury Lane in the City of Westminster dates back to 1663, making it the oldest London theatre, however the Theatre Royal at the Bristol Old Vic is the oldest continually-operating theatre in the English speaking world, opening in 1768.[35] The musicals of Andrew Lloyd Webber have dominated the West End since the late 20th century, leading him to be dubbed "the most commercially successful composer in history".[36] A National Theatre of Scotland was set up in 2006.

Music

Main article: Music of the United Kingdom
See also:
British rock, British blues, New wave of British heavy metal, Britpop, British soul, British Invasion, and Second British Invasion

Classical music

The Grenadier Guards band playing "The British Grenadiers" at Trooping the Colour. Formed in 1685 the band performs at British ceremonial events.

British Baroque music was heavily influenced by continental fashions. This is exemplified by George Frideric Handel, a German-born naturalised British citizen whose choral music set British taste for the next two centuries. His operas also helped Britain challenge Italy as a centre of operatic production. Classical music attracted much attention from 1784 with the formation of the Birmingham Triennial Music Festival, which was the longest running classical music festival of its kind until the final concerts in 1912. Beyond this, the establishment of the London Philharmonic Society in 1813, Royal Academy of Music in 1822, and Irish Academy of Music in 1848 aided the professionalisation of British classical music and patronage of composers.

The Philharmonic Society was a strong supporter of the German Felix Mendelssohn, an early Romantic composer who also strongly influenced British music. In Ireland, John Field invented the nocturne and may have been an influence on Chopin and Liszt. A notable development of the mid- to late-nineteenth century was the resurgence of English-language opera and the establishment of several prominent orchestras, including the Royal Liverpool Philharmonic in 1840, Manchester-based Hallé in 1858, the Scottish Orchestra in 1891 and the City of Birmingham Symphony Orchestra in 1920. The most notable trend in classical music at the turn of the century was the nationalistic trend that developed. This was initially seen in works like The Masque at Kenilworth, which reconstructed an Elizabethan masque, but later took a pastoral turn under the influence of the British folk revival. Examplars of this period are Ralph Vaughan Williams' English Folk Song Suite, and Sir Alexander Mackenzie's Scottish Rhapsodies.

Modern and contemporary classical music takes a variety of forms. Composers such as

BBC Proms
are an important annual fixture in the classical calendar.

Popular music

The Beatles are the most commercially successful and critically acclaimed band in popular music, with estimated sales of over one billion.[37]

Popular commercial music in Britain can be traced back at least as far as the seventeenth-century broadside ballad, and also encompasses brass band music and music hall. Popular music in the modern sense began to emerge in the 1950s, as the American styles of jazz and rock and roll became popular. The skiffle revival was an early attempt to create a British form of American music, but it was the emergence of British rock and roll by the early 1960s that established a viable British popular music industry. Genres such as beat and British blues were re-exported to America by bands such as the Beatles and Rolling Stones, in a move that came to be called the British Invasion. The 1960s saw the development of heavy metal in Birmingham and the wider area. The development of blues rock helped differentiate rock and pop music, leading to the emergence of several sub-genres of rock in the 1970s. Glam rock was a particularly British genre that emphasised outrageous costumes, while the end of the decade saw the rise of punk, new wave, and post-punk bands. The influence of immigration could also be seen in the increased prominence of World music, particularly Jamaican music.

The 1980s were a successful decade in British pop, as a second

mixed groups dominated the singles chart, while the Madchester scene helped drive alternative rock and Britpop to the mainstream. British soul saw a rise that continued into the 2000s, including the global success of Adele. Dance music also saw innovation, with genres such as dubstep and new rave
emerging.

Folk and sub-national music

Handel's "Arrival of the Queen of Sheba", from Solomon
"Hen Wlad Fy Nhadau (Land of My Fathers)"
Elgar's "Pomp & Circumstance March No. 1"
"Auld Lang Syne"
Problems playing these files? See media help.
Main articles: Welsh folk music and Scottish folk music

In contrast to the comparatively homogeneous classical and pop genres, each nation of the UK has retained a distinct tradition of folk music. The traditional

Morris dancing is an English folk dance known to have existed at least as early as the mid-15th century.[38]

The

Border ballads, which include the particularly influential Ballad of Chevy Chase.British folk groups, such as Fairport Convention
, have drawn heavily from these ballads.

Similarly, while the national anthem "God Save the King" and other patriotic songs such as "Rule, Britannia!" represent the United Kingdom, each of the four individual countries of the UK has its own patriotic hymns. For example, Jerusalem, Flower of Scotland, Land of My Fathers, and Danny Boy pertain exclusively to England, Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland respectively. These songs are often used at sporting events where each nation competes individually.

Cinema

Main article: Cinema of the United Kingdom
See also: Lists of British films
Peter O'Toole as T. E. Lawrence in David Lean's 1962 epic Lawrence of Arabia

Britain has had a significant film industry for over a century. While many films focus on British culture, British cinema is also marked by its interaction and competition with American and continental European cinema.

The UK was the location of the oldest surviving moving picture, Roundhay Garden Scene (1888), which was shot in Roundhay, Leeds by French inventor Louis Le Prince, while the first British film, Incident at Clovelly Cottage was shot in 1895.[39] The world's first colour motion picture was shot by Edward Raymond Turner in 1902.[40] British film production suffered in the 1920s in face of competition from American imports and a legal requirement for cinemas to show a set quota of British films, which encouraged poor-quality, low-cost productions to meet this demand. This had changed by the 1940s, when the government encouraged fewer, higher-quality films to be made. This era also saw the rise of Alfred Hitchcock, who soon moved to the US and become one of the twentieth century's most influential directors. During World War II the Crown Film Unit established a reputation for documentaries, while Powell and Pressburger began their influential and innovative collaboration.

The post-war period was a particular high point for British filmmaking, producing The Third Man and Brief Encounter, which the British Film Institute consider the best and second-best British films respectively. Laurence Olivier's 1948 Hamlet was the first British film to win the Academy Award for Best Picture. The 1950s saw a focus on popular domestic topics such as comedies, including the enduring Carry On series, and World War II epics such as The Dam Busters. At the end of the decade Hammer Films took advantage of relaxed censorship laws to begin their series of successful horror films. The beginning of the 1960s saw the British New Wave style develop, influenced by its French counterpart, that sought to depict a wider strata of society in a realistic manner. The 1960s also saw renewed American financial interest in British film, which particularly manifested itself in the development of historical epics, such as Best Picture winners Lawrence of Arabia and A Man for All Seasons; spy thrillers, including the first films in the James Bond franchise; and films based on 'swinging London' scene.

The 1970s saw a withdrawal of American support and a retrenchment in British cinema, though the decade did see culturally important productions such as the horror

British Asian films respectively. 1981's Chariots of Fire and 1982's Gandhi both won the Best Picture Oscar, the latter winning eight awards, prompting a resurgence in period films. 1982 also saw the creation of Channel 4
, which had a remit to promote films for minority audiences. Films with racial and LGBT themes were produced, while Channel 4's involvement saw television stars move into feature films.

American investment again increased in the 1990s, and the success of Four Weddings and a Funeral saw romantic comedies rise in popularity. Merchant Ivory Productions, boosted by the Oscars success of the previous decade's period pieces, continued to produce films in the same vein. American studios also began to base the production of Hollywood films in the UK, encouraged by tax incentives. 1996's Trainspotting led to increased interest in regional, particularly Scottish, cinema. While American-funded films continued their influence in the 2010s, domestic European co-productions also received acclaim. The Queen was British-French production for which Helen Mirren won Best Actress, while the UK Film Council funded The King's Speech, which won Best Picture in 2011. Asian British cinema has risen in prominence since 1999, when East is East was a mainstream success on a low budget.

Broadcasting

Main articles:
public service broadcasters
who, as part of their licence allowing them to operate, broadcast a variety of minority interest programming. The BBC and Channel 4 are state-owned, though they operate independently.

Broadcaster and naturalist David Attenborough is the only person to have won BAFTAs for programmes in each of black and white, colour, HD, and 3D.

Launched in 1955, ITV is the oldest commercial television network in the UK.

Galaxy chocolate bar featuring a computer-generated image of Audrey Hepburn. Christmas commercials are screened from early November in the UK, with campaigns including the John Lewis Christmas advert
for the department store chain.

International football tournaments, such as the

royal family
, politics, entertainment, sport and British culture of the 1980s up to the mid-1990s.

Animator Nick Park with his Wallace and Gromit characters

Have I Got News for You and Mock the Week are the two longest running satirical panel shows. Satire also features heavily in the Grand Theft Auto video game series which has been ranked among Britain's most successful exports.[45] The slapstick and double entendre of Benny Hill also achieved very high ratings on British television, as did the physical humour of Mr. Bean. Popular comedy duos in television include The Two Ronnies and Morecambe and Wise, with both shows featuring memorable sketches. Jeeves and Wooster starred Hugh Laurie as Bertie Wooster, an airy, nonchalant, gormless, idle young gentleman and Stephen Fry as Jeeves, his calm, well-informed, and talented valet. Created by and starring Rik Mayall as Richie and Adrian Edmondson as Eddie, Bottom features two crude, perverted flatmates with no jobs and little money, which is noted for its chaotic, nihilistic humour and violent comedy slapstick.[46] Steve Coogan created the character Alan Partridge, a tactless and inept television presenter who often insults his guests and whose inflated sense of celebrity drives him to shameless self-promotion. Da Ali G Show starred Sacha Baron Cohen as a faux-streetwise poseur Ali G from west London, who would conduct real interviews with unsuspecting people, many of whom are celebrities, during which they are asked absurd and ridiculous questions.

Animator Nick Park created the Wallace and Gromit characters at Aardman Animations studio in Bristol. They feature in A Grand Day Out (1989), The Wrong Trousers (1993) and A Close Shave (1995), which all have 100% positive ratings on the aggregation site Rotten Tomatoes, while A Matter of Loaf and Death was the most watched television programme in the UK in 2008. Aardman also produce the kid's show Shaun the Sheep. One of the most popular children's shows originating in the UK is Thomas & Friends (based on The Railway Series books by Wilbert Awdry), which has become the number one licensed preschool property in the world.[47] Other popular children's shows include Postman Pat, Fireman Sam, Teletubbies, Bob the Builder and Peppa Pig

First airing in 1958,

The Famous Five (based on Enid Blyton books), The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe (based on the C. S. Lewis novel), and Pride and Prejudice (starring Colin Firth as Mr. Darcy). The actor David Jason has voiced a number of popular characters in children's animation, including The Wind in the Willows (based on the children's book by Kenneth Grahame), Danger Mouse and Count Duckula. Other children's shows include Where's Wally? (a series based on books by author Martin Handford where readers are challenged to find Wally who is hidden in the group), Dennis the Menace and Gnasher, while Thunderbirds and Terrahawks by Gerry and Sylvia Anderson have been praised for creating Supermarionation.[48]

Debuting in 1982,

BARB.[43]
The major
Woolpack in ITV's Emmerdale. The pub being a prominent setting in the three major television soap operas reflects the role pubs have as the focal point of the community in many towns and villages across the UK. Espionage and detective shows have long been a staple of British television, such as the 1960s series The Avengers featuring lady spy adventurer and cultural (and feminist) icon Emma Peel
.

The United Kingdom has a large number of national and local radio stations which cover a great variety of programming. The most listened to stations are the five main national

BBC radio stations. BBC Radio 1, a new music station aimed at the 16–24 age group. BBC Radio 2, a varied popular music and chat station aimed at adults is consistently highest in the ratings. BBC Radio 4, a varied talk station, is noted for its news, current affairs, drama and comedy output as well as The Archers, its long running soap opera, and other unique programmes, including Desert Island Discs (1942–present), an interview programme in which a famous guest (called a "castaway") chooses eight pieces of music, a book and a luxury item that they would take with them to a desert island. Currently presented by Lauren Laverne
, it is the longest running music radio programme in British history.

The idea for a

public service broadcaster, also runs minority stations such as BBC Asian Network, BBC Radio 1Xtra and BBC Radio 6 Music, and local stations throughout the country. Rock music station Absolute Radio, and sports station Talksport, are among the biggest commercial radio stations in the UK.[49]

Print

Vanity Fair
, 30 January 1869

Freedom of the press was established in Great Britain in 1695.[50] Popular national newspapers include The Times, Financial Times, The Guardian, The Daily Telegraph and The Independent.

Founded by publisher

Vanity Fair featured caricatures of famous people for which it is best known today.[54]

A pioneer of children's publishing, John Newbery made children's literature a sustainable and profitable part of the literary market.[55] The History of Little Goody Two-Shoes was published by Newbery in 1765.[55] Founded by Sir Allen Lane in 1935, Penguin Books revolutionised publishing in the 1930s through its inexpensive paperbacks, bringing high-quality paperback fiction and non-fiction to the mass market.[56] Formed in 1940, Puffin Books is the children's imprint of Penguin Books. Barbara Euphan Todd's scarecrow story, Worzel Gummidge, was the first Puffin story book in 1941.[57]

The

trilogy Fifty Shades of Grey, Fifty Shades Darker, and Fifty Shades Freed, have sold over 125 million copies globally, and set the record in the United Kingdom as the fastest selling paperback.[59]

Copyright laws originated in Britain with the Statute of Anne (also known as the Copyright Act 1709), which outlined the individual rights of the artist. A right to benefit financially from the work is articulated, and court rulings and legislation have recognised a right to control the work, such as ensuring that the integrity of it is preserved.[60] The Statute of Anne gave the publishers rights for a fixed period, after which the copyright expired.[61]

Visual arts

Main article: Art of the United Kingdom
The Battle of Trafalgar is an oil painting executed in 1822 by J. M. W. Turner (c.1775–1851). The experience of military, political and economic power from the rise of the British Empire led to a very specific drive in artistic technique, taste and sensibility in the United Kingdom.[62]

From the creation of the United Kingdom, the

English school of painting is mainly notable for portraits and landscapes, and indeed portraits in landscapes. Among the artists of this period are Joshua Reynolds (1723–1792), George Stubbs (1724–1806), and Thomas Gainsborough
(1727–1788).

Pictorial satirist

political cartoons developed in England in the latter part of the 18th century under the direction of James Gillray. Regarded as being one of the two most influential cartoonists (the other being Hogarth), Gillray has been referred to as the father of the political cartoon, with his satirical work calling the king (George III), prime ministers and generals to account.[63]

The late 18th century and the early 19th century was perhaps the most radical period in British art, producing William Blake (1757–1827), John Constable (1776–1837) and J. M. W. Turner (1775–1851), three of the most influential British artists, each of whom have dedicated spaces allocated for their work at the Tate Britain.[64] Named after Turner, the Turner Prize (created in 1984) is an annual award presented to a British visual artist under the age of 50.

The Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood (PRB) achieved considerable influence after its foundation in 1848 with paintings that concentrated on religious, literary, and genre subjects executed in a colourful and minutely detailed style. PRB artists included John Everett Millais, Dante Gabriel Rossetti and subsequently Edward Burne-Jones. Also associated with it was the designer William Morris, whose efforts to make beautiful objects affordable (or even free) for everyone led to his wallpaper and tile designs to some extent defining the Victorian aesthetic and instigating the Arts and Crafts movement.

Visual artists from the UK in the 20th century include

peace symbol.[65] As a reaction to abstract expressionism, pop art emerged in England at the end of the 1950s. The 1990s saw the Young British Artists, Damien Hirst and Tracey Emin
.

The first colour photograph in 1861. Produced by the three-colour method suggested by James Clerk Maxwell in 1855, it is the foundation of all colour photographic processes.[66]

The auction was revived in 17th- and 18th-century England when auctions by candle began to be used for the sale of goods and leaseholds, some of which were recorded in Samuel Pepys's diary in 1660.[67] Headquartered in King Street, London, Christie's, the world's largest auction house, was founded in 1766 by auctioneer James Christie in London. Known for his thickly impasted portrait and figure paintings, Lucian Freud was widely considered the pre-eminent British artist of his time. Freud was depicted in Francis Bacon's 1969 oil painting, Three Studies of Lucian Freud, which was sold for $142.4 million in November 2013, the highest price attained at auction to that point.[68]

Banksy's Grin Reaper

Randolph Caldecott, Walter Crane, Kate Greenaway, John Tenniel, Aubrey Beardsley, Roger Hargreaves, Arthur Rackham, John Leech, George Cruikshank and Beatrix Potter were notable book illustrators. Posters have played a significant role in British culture. Designed by Alfred Leete in 1914 as a recruitment poster for the British Army, "Lord Kitchener Wants You" is the most famous British recruitment poster ever produced and an iconic and enduring image of World War I.[69] Produced by the British government in 1939 for World War II, the Keep Calm and Carry On motivational poster is now seen as "not only as a distillation of a crucial moment in Britishness, but also as an inspiring message from the past to the present in a time of crisis".[70]

In the late 1960s, British

Tate Gallery
(founded as the National Gallery of British Art).

Design
Concorde (and the Red Arrows with their trail of red, white and blue smoke) mark the Queen's Golden Jubilee. With its slender delta wings Concorde won the public vote for best British design.

In 2006, 37 years after its first test flight,

mini skirt, Jaguar E-Type, Tube map and the Supermarine Spitfire.[73] The Spitfire featured in Christopher Nolan's 2017 action-thriller film Dunkirk
.

Sir Morien Morgan led research into supersonic transport in 1948 that culminated in the Concorde passenger aircraft.[74] In November 1956 he became chairman of the newly formed Supersonic Transport Aircraft Committee which funded research into supersonic transport at several British aviation firms though the 1950s. By the late 1950s, the committee had started the process of selecting specific designs for development, and after the forced merger of most aviation firms in 1960, selected the Bristol Type 223, designed by Archibald Russell, as the basis for a transatlantic design.[74]

The Brit Awards statuette for the BPI's annual music awards, which depicts Britannia, the female personification of Britain, is regularly redesigned by some of the best known British designers, stylists and artists, including Dame Vivienne Westwood, Damien Hirst, Tracey Emin, Sir Peter Blake, Zaha Hadid and Sir Anish Kapoor.[75]

Performing arts, carnivals, parades

The Proms are held annually at the Royal Albert Hall during the summer. Regular performers at the Albert Hall include Eric Clapton
who has played at the venue over 200 times.

Large outdoor

Irish dancing is popular in Northern Ireland and among the Irish diaspora throughout the UK; its costumes feature patterns taken from the medieval Book of Kells.[78]

A staple of British seaside culture, the quarrelsome couple

Puritanism. We soon changed Punch's name, transformed him from a marionette to a hand puppet, and he became, really, a spirit of Britain – a subversive maverick who defies authority, a kind of puppet equivalent to our political cartoons."[79]

jugglers, performing dogs, and a clown to fill time between his own demonstrations – the modern circus was born.[81] The Hughes Royal Circus was popular in London in the 1780s. Pablo Fanque's Circus Royal, among the most popular circuses of Victorian England, showcased William Kite, which inspired John Lennon to write "Being for the Benefit of Mr. Kite!" on The Beatles' album Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band. Joseph Grimaldi, originator of whiteface clown make-up, is considered the father of modern clowning.[82]

The Edinburgh Festival Fringe is the world's largest arts festival. Established in 1947, it takes place in Scotland's capital during three weeks every August alongside several other arts and cultural festivals. The Fringe mostly attracts events from the performing arts, particularly theatre and comedy, although dance and music also feature. The Notting Hill Carnival is an annual event that has taken place on the streets of Notting Hill, London since 1966.[83] Led by the British African-Caribbean community, the carnival has attracted around one million people, making it Britain's biggest street festival and one of the largest in the world.[83] Also of note is the extensive impact of Irish culture for St. Patrick's Day. The largest St Patrick's Day Parade takes place in Digbeth, Birmingham, where there is a strong Irish community.

The Christmas Pantomime 1890. Pantomime plays a prominent role in British culture during the Christmas and New Year season.[84]
Music hall evolved into variety shows. First performed in 1912, the Royal Variety Performance was first held at the London Palladium (pictured) in 1941. Performed in front of members of the Royal Family, it is held annually in December and broadcast on television.

topical humour with a story loosely based on a well-known fairy tale.[84] It is a participatory form of theatre, in which the audience sing along with parts of the music and shout out phrases to the performers, such as "It's behind you".[85]

Pantomime story lines and scripts are almost always based on traditional children's stories: some of the popular British stories featured include

Jack and Jill. Famous people regularly appear in Pantos, such as Ian McKellen.[86] McKellen has also appeared at gay pride marches, with Manchester Pride one of 15 annual gay pride parades in the UK; the largest in Brighton attracts over 300,000.[87]

Jack In the Green, a traditional English folk custom being celebrated in Hastings Old Town, known for its many historic buildings.[88]

British Royal Family, many famous acts have performed at the Royal Variety show over the century, and since 2007 one act of the show has been selected by the British public through the ITV television talent show Britain's Got Talent
.

Architecture

Main article: Architecture of the United Kingdom
Bodiam Castle is a 14th-century moated castle in East Sussex. Today there are thousands of castles throughout the UK.[92]

The

Norman conquest of England of 1066, and the building of the Tower of London, castles such as Caernarfon Castle in Wales and Carrickfergus Castle
in Ireland were built.

Westminster Abbey is an example of English Gothic architecture. Since 1066, when William the Conqueror was crowned, the coronations of British monarchs have been held here.[94]

funeral of Princess Diana,[95] Canterbury Cathedral, one of the oldest and most famous Christian structures in England; Salisbury Cathedral, which has the tallest church spire in the UK; and Winchester Cathedral, which has the longest nave and greatest overall length of any Gothic cathedral in Europe.[96] Tudor architecture is the final development of Medieval architecture in England, during the Tudor period (1485–1603). In the United Kingdom, a listed building
is a building or other structure officially designated as being of special architectural, historical or cultural significance. About half a million buildings in the UK have "listed" status.

In the 1680s, Downing Street was built by Sir George Downing, and its most famous address 10 Downing Street, became the residence of the Prime Minister in 1730.[97] One of the best-known English architects working at the time of the foundation of the United Kingdom was Sir Christopher Wren. He was employed to design and rebuild many of the ruined ancient churches of London following the Great Fire of London. His masterpiece, St Paul's Cathedral, was completed in the early years of the United Kingdom.[98] Buckingham Palace, the London residence of the British monarch, was built in 1705. Both St Paul's Cathedral and Buckingham Palace use Portland stone, a limestone from the Jurassic period quarried in the Jurassic Coast in Portland, Dorset, which is famous for its use in British and world architecture.[99]

In the early 18th century Baroque architecture – popular in Europe – was introduced, and Blenheim Palace was built in this era. However, Baroque was quickly replaced by a return of the Palladian form. The Georgian architecture of the 18th century was an evolved form of Palladianism. Many existing buildings such as Woburn Abbey and Kedleston Hall are in this style. Among the many architects of this form of architecture and its successors, neoclassical and romantic, were Robert Adam, Sir William Chambers, and James Wyatt.

Pride and Prejudice
.

The aristocratic

safari park
outside Africa.

Forth Railway Bridge is a cantilever bridge over the Firth of Forth in the east of Scotland. It was opened in 1890, and is designated as a Category A listed building
.

In the early 19th century the romantic

August Pugin
ensured that traditional styles were retained.

Following the building of the world's first seaside pier in July 1814 in Ryde, Isle of Wight off the south coast of England, the pier became fashionable at seaside resorts in the UK during the Victorian era, peaking in the 1860s with 22 being built.[101] Providing a walkway out to sea, the seaside pier is regarded as among the finest Victorian architecture, and is an iconic symbol of the British seaside holiday.[101] By 1914, there were over 100 piers around the UK's coasts.[101] Today there are 55 seaside piers in the UK.[101] Tower Bridge (half a mile from London Bridge) opened in 1895.

At the beginning of the 20th century a new form of design, arts and crafts, became popular; the architectural form of this style, which had evolved from the 19th-century designs of such architects as George Devey, was championed by Edwin Lutyens. Arts and crafts in architecture is characterised by an informal, non-symmetrical form, often with mullioned or lattice windows, multiple gables and tall chimneys. This style continued to evolve until World War II. After that war, reconstruction went through a variety of phases, but was heavily influenced by Modernism, especially from the late 1950s to the early 1970s. Many bleak town centre redevelopments—criticised for featuring hostile, concrete-lined "windswept plazas"—were the fruit of this interest, as were many equally bleak public buildings, such as the Hayward Gallery.

tripod from The War of the Worlds in Woking, England, the hometown of author H. G. Wells. The book is a seminal depiction of a conflict between mankind and an extraterrestrial race.[102]

Many Modernist-inspired town centres are today being redeveloped:

Olympic Park
in London.

Described by

Shard London Bridge is the tallest building in the UK. Other major skyscrapers under construction in London include 22 Bishopsgate, and Heron Tower. Modernist architect Nicholas Grimshaw designed the Eden Project in Cornwall, which is the world's largest greenhouse.[104]

Comics

Main article: British comics
Statue of Minnie the Minx, a character from The Beano, in Dundee, Scotland. Launched in 1938, The Beano is known for its anarchic humour, with Dennis the Menace appearing on the cover.

British comics in the early 20th century typically evolved from illustrated

vampire fiction, Varney is the first story to refer to sharpened teeth for a vampire.[106] After adult comics had been published – most notably Ally Sloper's Half Holiday (1880s) featuring Ally Sloper who has been called the first regular character in comics,[107] – more juvenile British comics emerged, with the two most popular, The Beano and The Dandy, released by DC Thomson (based in Dundee, Scotland) in the 1930s. By 1950 the weekly circulation of both reached two million.[108] Explaining the popularity of comics during this period, Anita O'Brien, director curator at London's Cartoon Museum, states: "When comics like the Beano and Dandy were invented back in the 1930s – and through really to the 1950s and 1960s – these comics were almost the only entertainment available to children."[108]

In 1954

Eagle, Valiant, Warrior, and 2000 AD. Other popular titles were war comics inspired by British military history like Commando, War Picture Library, and The Victor.[109][110]

Created by

Emma Orczy in 1903, the Scarlet Pimpernel is the alter ego of Sir Percy Blakeney, a wealthy English fop who transforms into a formidable swordsman and a quick-thinking escape artist, establishing the "hero with a secret identity" into popular culture.[111] The Scarlet Pimpernel first appeared on stage (1903) and then in novel (1905), and became very popular with the British public.[112] He exhibits characteristics that became standard superhero conventions in comic books, including the penchant for disguise, use of a signature weapon (sword), ability to out-think and outwit his adversaries, and a calling card (he leaves behind a scarlet pimpernel at his interventions).[112] Drawing attention to his alter ego Blakeney he hides behind his public face as a meek, slow thinking foppish playboy, and he establishes a network of supporters, The League of the Scarlet Pimpernel, that aid his endeavours.[112]

In the 1980s, a resurgence of British writers and artists gained prominence in mainstream comic books, which was dubbed the "

Kick-Ass
.

Prominent comic book artists include

Glen Fabry, John Ridgway and Sean Phillips. The comic book series Hellblazer, set in Britain and starring the Liverpudlian magician John Constantine, paved the way for British writers such as Jamie Delano, Mike Carey and Denise Mina.[116]

Folklore

Main articles: British folklore, English folklore, Scottish folklore, Irish folklore, and Welsh folklore

Robin Hood and the ballad tradition

Much of the folklore of the United Kingdom pre-dates the 18th century. Though some of the characters and stories are present throughout all of the UK, most belong to specific countries or regions. Common folkloric beings include

Richard the Lionheart, Christian leader of the Third Crusade, came to be seen as a contemporary and supporter of Robin Hood. A plaque features Richard marrying Robin and Maid Marian outside Nottingham Castle.[118]

During the

King Cole, may have been based on a real figure from Sub-Roman Britain. Many of the tales make up part of the wider Matter of Britain
, a collection of shared British folklore.

The

giants as stupid and violent, while the dwarf Tom Thumb
is a traditional hero in English folklore.

English fairy tale

Goldilocks and the Three Bears is one of the most popular fairy tales in the English language.[120] Some folk figures are based on semi- or actual historical people whose story has been passed down centuries: Lady Godiva, for instance, was said to have ridden naked on horseback through Coventry; the heroic English figure Hereward the Wake resisted the Norman invasion; Herne the Hunter is an equestrian ghost associated with Windsor Forest and Great Park, and Mother Shipton is the archetypal witch.[121] The chivalrous bandit, such as Dick Turpin
, is a recurring character.

Pirates

Engraving of the English pirate Blackbeard from the 1724 book A General History of the Pyrates. The book is the prime source for many famous pirates of the Golden Age.[122]

Published in 1724,

Davy Jones' Locker, where sailors or ships' remains are consigned to the bottom of the sea, is first recorded by Daniel Defoe in 1726.[125] Johnson's 1724 book gave a mythical status to famous English pirates such as Blackbeard and Calico Jack—Jack's Jolly Roger flag design features a skull with crossed swords.[126]

Superstitions

Main article: Superstition in Britain
Two of the current Ravens of the Tower of London. The ravens' presence is traditionally believed to protect the Crown and the tower; a superstition holds that "if the Tower of London ravens are lost or fly away, the Crown will fall and Britain with it".[127]

The Gremlin is part of Royal Air Force folklore dating from the 1920s, with "gremlin" being RAF slang for a mischievous creature that sabotages aircraft, meddling in the plane's equipment.[128] Legendary figures from 19th-century London whose tales have been romanticised include Sweeney Todd, the murderous barber of Fleet Street (accompanied with Mrs. Lovett who sells pies made from Todd's victims), and serial killer Jack the Ripper. On 5 November, people in Britain celebrate Guy Fawkes Night by making bonfires and lighting fireworks in commemoration of the foiling of Guy Fawkes' Gunpowder Plot, which became an annual event after the Observance of 5th November Act 1605 was passed.[129] Guy Fawkes masks are an emblem for anti-establishment protest groups.[130]

Traditional non-religious holidays

Robert Burns' "Halloween" (1785)

Halloween is a traditional and much celebrated holiday in Scotland and Ireland on the night of 31 October.[131] The name "Halloween" is first attested in the 16th century as a Scottish shortening of the fuller All-Hallows-Even,[132] and according to some historians has its roots in the Gaelic festival Samhain, when the Gaels believed the border between this world and the otherworld became thin, and the dead would revisit the mortal world.[133] In 1780, Dumfries poet John Mayne makes note of pranks at Halloween; "What fearfu' pranks ensue!", as well as the supernatural associated with the night, "Bogies" (ghosts).[134] Robert Burns' 1785 poem "Halloween" is recited by Scots at Halloween, and Burns was influenced by Mayne's composition.[134]

In Scotland and Ireland, traditional Halloween customs include

Hammer Horrors). Mass transatlantic Irish and Scottish migration in the 19th century popularised Halloween in North America.[141]

The wizard Merlin features as a character in many works of fiction, including the BBC series Merlin.

three witches and their cauldron. The ghost of Anne Boleyn is a frequently reported ghost sighting in the UK. Differing accounts include seeing her ghost ride up to Blickling Hall in a coach drawn by a headless horseman, with her own head on her lap.[143]

Mr Crowley".[146]

National parks, museums, libraries, and galleries

Heritage administration

Stonehenge, Wiltshire at sunset

Each country has its own body responsible for heritage matters.

UNESCO World Heritage Sites are in England. Some of the best known of these include Hadrian's Wall, Stonehenge, Avebury and Associated Sites, Tower of London, Jurassic Coast, Westminster, Saltaire, Ironbridge Gorge, and Studley Royal Park. The northernmost point of the Roman Empire, Hadrian's Wall, is the largest Roman artefact anywhere: it runs a total of 73 miles in northern England.[147]

Historic Environment Scotland is the executive agency of the Scottish Government, responsible for historic monuments in Scotland, such as Stirling Castle. The Old and New Town of Edinburgh is a notable Scottish World Heritage site. Balmoral Castle is the main Scottish residence of the British monarch. The Wallace Monument in Stirling contains artifacts believed to have belonged to Sir William Wallace, including the Wallace Sword. The Rob Roy Way, named after Scottish folk hero and outlaw Rob Roy MacGregor, is a long-distance footpath that runs for 92 miles. A statue of Robert the Bruce and a large monument and visitor centre (operated by the National Trust for Scotland) is located in Bannockburn near the site of the Battle of Bannockburn.[148]

Hadrian's Wall was built in the 2nd century AD. It is a lasting monument from Roman Britain. It is the largest Roman artefact in existence.

Many of Wales' great castles, such as the

Snowdonia National Park. The five most frequently visited Welsh castles are Caernarfon Castle, Conwy Castle, Caerphilly Castle, Harlech Castle and Beaumaris Castle. The Northern Ireland Environment Agency promotes and conserves the natural and built environment in Northern Ireland, and the Giant's Causeway on the north-east coast is one of the natural World Heritage sites. Tintagel Castle is a popular tourist destination in Cornwall, with the castle associated with the legend of King Arthur since the 12th century. There are 15 National Parks, including the Lake District in England, Snowdonia in Wales, and Loch Lomond and The Trossachs National Park
in Scotland

Museums and galleries

Further information:
Museums in Northern Ireland
Titanic Belfast museum on the former shipyard in Belfast where the RMS Titanic was built

The

Amgueddfa Cymru – National Museum Wales comprises eight museums in Wales. National Museums Northern Ireland has four museums in Northern Ireland including the Ulster Museum
.

The Titanic Belfast museum, a visitor attraction in the Titanic Quarter, east Belfast, Northern Ireland on the regenerated site of the shipyard where Titanic was built, was opened to the public in 2012.[151] The architecture is a tribute to Titanic itself, with the external facades a nod to the enormous hull of the ocean liner.

The first

Princess Diana), historical figures (Henry VIII), sport (David Beckham), music (Freddie Mercury), literature (Charles Dickens), politics (Winston Churchill), television (Gordon Ramsay), and cinema (Michael Caine) among others.[152]

The most senior art gallery is the

National Galleries of Scotland are the five national galleries of Scotland and two partner galleries. The National Museum of Art, Wales, opened in 2011.[154]

Libraries

The

research libraries, holding over 150 million items in all known languages and formats; including around 25 million books.[155] The library has two of the four remaining copies of the original Magna Carta (the other two copies are held in Lincoln Castle and Salisbury Cathedral) and has a room devoted solely to them. The British Library Sound Archive has over six million recordings (many from the BBC Sound Archive
, including Winston Churchill's wartime speeches.)

The National Library of Scotland in Edinburgh holds 7 million books, 14 million printed items (such as the last letter written by Mary, Queen of Scots) and over 2 million maps.[156] The National Library of Wales is the national legal deposit library of Wales, and holds over 6.5 million books, portraits, maps and photographic images in Wales.[157]

Historical markers

English Heritage blue plaque commemorating Sir Alfred Hitchcock at 153 Cromwell Road, London

historical marker scheme in the world.[158] The scheme was proposed by politician William Ewart in 1863 and was initiated in 1866 by the Society of Arts. Since 1986 it has been run by English Heritage.[158]

The first plaque was unveiled in 1867 to commemorate

gobstoppers jar.[159]

Science and technology

Main article: Science and technology in the United Kingdom
See also: List of British innovations and discoveries

From the time of the Scientific Revolution, England and Scotland, and thereafter the United Kingdom, have been prominent in world scientific and technological development. The Royal Society serves as the national academy for sciences, with members drawn from different institutions and disciplines. Formed in 1660, it is one of the oldest learned societies still in existence.[160]

Gottfried Leibniz) of differential calculus. He also created the binomial theorem, worked extensively on optics, and created a law of cooling
.

Charles Darwin established that all species of life have descended over time from common ancestors.[161]

Figures from the UK have contributed to the development of most major branches of science.

principle of conservation of energy
.

Naturalist

Harold Kroto discovered buckminsterfullerene
.

Other 19th- and early 20th-century British pioneers in their field include

William Fox Talbot (photography), and Howard Carter (modern archaeology, discovered Tutankhamun
).

Scholarly descriptions of dinosaur bones first appeared in the late 17th-century England. Between 1815 and 1824, William Buckland discovered fossils of Megalosaurus and became the first person to describe a dinosaur in a scientific journal. The second dinosaur genus to be identified, Iguanodon, was discovered in 1822 by Mary Ann Mantell. In 1832, Gideon Mantell discovered fossils of a third dinosaur, Hylaeosaurus. Owen recognised that the remains of the three new species that had been found so far shared a number of distinctive features. He decided to present them as a distinct taxonomic group, dinosaurs.[164]

Sir John Franklin, David Livingstone, Captain John Smith, Robert Falcon Scott, Lawrence Oates and Ernest Shackleton. The aquarium craze began in Victorian England when Philip Henry Gosse created and stocked the first public aquarium at London Zoo in 1853, and coined the term "aquarium" when he published The Aquarium: An Unveiling of the Wonders of the Deep Sea in 1854.[166] Robert FitzRoy pioneered weather forecasting: the first daily weather forecasts were published in The Times in 1861.[167]

A man in his laboratory
Portrait of a man
Biologist Alexander Fleming (left) discovered the world's first antibiotic. Physician Edward Jenner (right) discovered the world's first vaccine.

A crucial advance in the development of the flush toilet was the S-trap invented by Alexander Cumming in 1775 – it uses the standing water to seal the outlet of the bowl, preventing the escape of foul air from the sewer.[168] In 1824 Charles Macintosh invented the waterproof raincoat; the Mackintosh (mac) is named after him.[168] William Sturgeon invented the electromagnet in 1824.[169] The first commercial electrical telegraph was co-invented by Sir William Fothergill Cooke and Charles Wheatstone. They patented it in May 1837 as an alarm system, and it was first successfully demonstrated on 25 July 1837 between Euston and Camden Town in London.[170]

Postal reformer

information age
.

A Watt steam engine, the steam engine that propelled the Industrial Revolution in Britain and the world[173]

Historically, many of the UK's greatest scientists have been based at either

low temperature physics
.

Technologically, the UK is also amongst the world's leaders. Historically, it was at the forefront of the

railway networks in the world, with the Stockton and Darlington Railway, opened in 1825, the first public railway to use steam locomotives. Opened in 1863, London Underground is the world's first underground railway.[174] Running along the East Coast Main Line between Edinburgh and London, the Flying Scotsman has been ranked the world's most famous steam locomotive.[175]

Engineer Isambard Kingdom Brunel, another major figure of the Industrial Revolution, was placed second in a 2002 BBC nationwide poll to determine the "100 Greatest Britons".[176] He created the Great Western Railway, as well as famous steamships including the SS Great Britain, the first propeller-driven ocean-going iron ship, and SS Great Eastern which laid the first lasting transatlantic telegraph cable. Josiah Wedgwood pioneered the industrialisation of pottery manufacture.[177] In 1820, Scottish road builder John McAdam invented "macadamisation" for building roads with a smooth hard surface. In 1901, Edgar Purnell Hooley added tar to the mix and named it Tarmac (short for tarmacadam).[178]

Smeaton's Eddystone Lighthouse, 9 miles out to sea. John Smeaton pioneered hydraulic lime in concrete which led to the development of Portland cement in England and thus modern concrete.

Probably the greatest driver behind the modern use of concrete was Smeaton's Tower built by John Smeaton in the 1750s. The third Eddystone Lighthouse (the world's first open ocean lighthouse), Smeaton pioneered the use of hydraulic lime in concrete. Scotsman Robert Stevenson constructed the Bell Rock Lighthouse in the early 1800s. Situated 11 miles off east Scotland, it is the world's oldest surviving sea-washed lighthouse. Portland cement, the most common type of cement in general use around the world as a basic ingredient of concrete, was developed in England in the 19th century. It was coined by Joseph Aspdin in 1824 (he named it after Portland stone), and further developed by his son William Aspdin in the 1840s.

The UK has produced some of the most famous ships in the world:

Henry VIII's warship), the Golden Hind (Sir Francis Drake's ship for the circumnavigation of the globe between 1577 and 1580), HMS Victory (Lord Nelson's flagship at the Battle of Trafalgar in 1805), and HMS Beagle (ship used in Charles Darwin's five-year voyage). Other important British ships include HMS Endeavour (James Cook's ship in his first voyage of discovery), HMS Challenger (first global marine research expedition: the Challenger expedition), and Discovery (carried Robert Falcon Scott and Ernest Shackleton in the Discovery Expedition, their first successful journey to the Antarctic). The Royal Navy troopship HMS Birkenhead is known for the first appearance of the "women and children first" protocol.[179]

Since then, the UK has continued this tradition of technical creativity.

IVF (world's first "test tube baby") in 1978.[180]

Physicist Stephen Hawking set forth a theory of cosmology explained by a union of the general theory of relativity and quantum mechanics. His 1988 book A Brief History of Time appeared on The Sunday Times best-seller list for a record-breaking 237 weeks.[181]

The prototype

invasion of Normandy in WWII. In 1918, HMS Argus became the world's first aircraft carrier capable of launching and recovering naval aircraft, and in WWII, HMS Ark Royal was involved in the first aerial and U-boat kills of the war, as well as the crippling of the German battleship the Bismarck in May 1941. In 1932, Cambridge engineer Francis Thomas Bacon invented the alkaline fuel cell which is used to generate power for space capsules and satellites.[183]

Introduced in 1952, the de Havilland Comet was the world's first commercial jet airliner.[184] Operated by British Overseas Airways Corporation (which merged with other British operators to form today's British Airways), on 2 May 1952 the flight registered G-ALYS took off with fare-paying passengers and inaugurated scheduled service from London to Johannesburg.[184]

In 1952,

Enfield, north London. Dolly the sheep, the first mammal successfully cloned
from an adult somatic cell (by scientists at Roslin Institute in Edinburgh), became a celebrity in the 1990s.

Industrial Revolution

English Bill of Rights of 1689. William tramples on arbitrary power and hands the red cap of liberty to Europe where, unlike Britain, absolute monarchy stayed the normal form of power execution. Below William is the French king Louis XIV.[186]

The

entrepreneurial spirit and consumer revolution drove industrialisation in Britain.[188]
Geographical and natural resource advantages of Great Britain also contributed, with the country's extensive coast lines and many navigable rivers in an age where water was the easiest means of transportation. Britain also had high quality coal.

Historian Jeremy Black states, "an unprecedented explosion of new ideas, and new technological inventions, transformed our use of energy, creating an increasingly industrial and urbanised country. Roads, railways and canals were built. Great cities appeared. Scores of factories and mills sprang up. Our landscape would never be the same again. It was a revolution that transformed not only the country, but the world itself."[187]

Josiah Wedgwood was a leading entrepreneur in the Industrial Revolution.

Pottery manufacturer

cabinet-maker who in 1754 produced the "first comprehensive trade catalogue of its kind",[190] and Thomas J. Barratt, who became the first brand manager of a company (Pears soap) in 1865. In 1882, English actress and socialite Lillie Langtry was recruited by Barratt to become the poster-girl for Pears (which included putting her "signature" on the advertisements), as she became the first celebrity to endorse a commercial product.[191]

Described as "natural capitalists" by the

railway.[193]

Cars

Main article: List of car manufacturers of the United Kingdom

The UK has had a long history of car making. Some of the best known British brands are

Sir Alec Issigonis. It has been named Britain's favourite car in a poll.[196]

Religion

Main article: Religion in the United Kingdom
See also: Religion in England, Religion in Northern Ireland, Religion in Scotland, and Religion in Wales

Forms of

fifth largest Jewish community worldwide.[199]

John Speed's Genealogies Recorded in the Sacred Scriptures (1611), bound into first King James Bible in quarto size (1612)

William Tyndale's 1520s translation of the Bible was the first to be printed in English, and was a model for subsequent English translations, notably the King James Version in 1611. The Book of Common Prayer of 1549 was the first prayer book to include the complete forms of service for daily and Sunday worship in English, and the marriage and burial rites have found their way into those of other denominations and into the English language.

In 17th-century England, the

Puritans condemned the celebration of Christmas.[200] In contrast, the Anglican Church "pressed for a more elaborate observance of feasts, penitential seasons, and saints' days. The calendar reform became a major point of tension between the Anglicans and Puritans."[201] The Catholic Church also responded, promoting the festival in a more religiously orientated form. King Charles I of England directed his noblemen and gentry to return to their landed estates in midwinter to keep up their old-style Christmas generosity. Following the Parliamentarian victory over Charles I in the English Civil War, Puritan rulers banned Christmas in 1647.[202]

The Examination and Trial of Father Christmas (1686), published after Christmas was reinstated as a holy day in England

Protests followed as pro-Christmas rioting broke out in several cities; and for weeks

Restoration of King Charles II
in 1660 ended the ban.

Following the Restoration, Poor Robins Almanack contained the lines:

Now thanks to God for Charles return
Whose absence made old Christmas mourn
For then we scarcely did it know
Whether it Christmas were or no.[204]

The diary of James Woodforde, from the latter half of the 18th century, details Christmas observance and celebrations associated with the season over a number of years.[205]

In the early 19th century, writers imagined Tudor Christmas as a time of heartfelt celebration. In 1843, Charles Dickens wrote the novel A Christmas Carol that helped revive the "spirit" of Christmas and seasonal merriment.[206][207] Dickens sought to construct Christmas as a family-centred festival of generosity, linking "worship and feasting, within a context of social reconciliation."[208] Superimposing his humanitarian vision of the holiday, termed "Carol Philosophy",[209] Dickens influenced many aspects of Christmas celebrated today in Western culture, such as family gatherings, seasonal food and drink, dancing, games, and a festive generosity of spirit.[210] A prominent phrase from the tale, "Merry Christmas", was popularised following its publication.[211] The term Scrooge became a synonym for miser, with "Bah! Humbug!" dismissive of the festive spirit.[207] Tiny Tim says "God bless us, every one!" which he offers as a blessing at Christmas dinner. Dickens repeats the phrase at the end of the story; symbolic of Scrooge's change of heart.

Queen Victoria's Christmas tree at Windsor Castle, published in the Illustrated London News, 1848

The revival of the

God Rest Ye Merry, Gentlemen". In 1843 the first commercial Christmas card was produced by Henry Cole, leading to the exchange of festive greeting cards among the public. The movement coincided with the appearance of the Oxford Movement and the growth of Anglo-Catholicism, which led a revival in traditional rituals and religious observances.[212]

In the UK, the

Prince Albert, a hugely influential image of the British royal family with their Christmas tree at Windsor Castle was published in the Illustrated London News in 1848, after which the custom became more widespread throughout Britain.[214]

While

George Williams founded YMCA (Young Men's Christian Association) in London. The oldest and largest youth charity in the world, its aim is to support young people to belong, contribute and thrive in their communities.[218] The Salvation Army is a Christian charity founded by William Booth and his wife Catherine in London's East End in 1865. It seeks to bring salvation to the poor, destitute and hungry.[219]

Politics and government

Main article: Politics of the United Kingdom
See also: Politics of England, Politics of Scotland, Politics of Wales, and Politics of Northern Ireland

The Crown and parliament

The UK has a

Wales are not sovereign bodies and could be abolished by the UK Parliament, despite each being established following public approval as expressed in a referendum.[220]

The UK's two major political parties are the Labour Party and the Conservative Party, who between them won 568 out of 650 seats in the House of Commons at the most recent general election. Currently, the third biggest party in terms of seats in the Commons is the Scottish National Party (SNP). At the most recent election, the SNP won 48 out of the 59 Scottish constituencies. The Liberal Democrats, or Lib Dems, were the fourth largest, at 11 seats. One seat was won by the Green Party. The remaining seats were won by regional parties, namely Plaid Cymru (Wales), the Alliance Party of Northern Ireland, the Social Democratic and Labour Party, Democratic Unionist Party, and Sinn Féin (Northern Ireland).

10 Downing Street, official residence of the Prime Minister

A prominent part of British political culture, Prime Minister's Questions – often referred to as "PMQs" – is held every Wednesday at noon when the House of Commons is sitting. The Prime Minister spends around half an hour responding to questions from Members of Parliament (MPs). In questioning the policies of government ministers, MP Amber Rudd states "PMQs is central to our democracy".[221] Due to the drama of the sessions, PMQs is among the best-known parliamentary business in the country. It is broadcast live on BBC News, Sky News and BBC Parliament television channels, as well as streamed online by many news outlets via numerous services, such as Twitch or YouTube.

The United Kingdom has an

Acts of Parliament and thus has the political power to change or abolish almost any written or unwritten element of the constitution. However, no Parliament can pass laws that future Parliaments cannot change.[222]

The law

British constitutional documents include

Albert Venn Dicey wrote that the British Habeas Corpus Acts "declare no principle and define no rights, but they are for practical purposes worth a hundred constitutional articles guaranteeing individual liberty".[223] An advocate of the "unwritten constitution", Dicey stated English rights were embedded in the general English common law of personal liberty, and "the institutions and manners of the nation".[224]

According to 2016 figures from the Ministry of Justice, there is a 35% chance of people in England and Wales being summoned for jury duty over the course of their lifetime. In Scotland the percentage is higher due to Scotland having a lower population as well having juries made up of fifteen people as opposed to twelve in England and Wales.[225]

Emmeline Pankhurst. Named one of the 100 Most Important People of the 20th Century by Time, Pankhurst was a leading figure in the suffragette movement.[226]

The 17th-century English patriot John Hampden was a leading parliamentarian involved in challenging the authority of Charles I when he refused to be taxed for ship money in 1637, and was one of the Five Members whose attempted unconstitutional arrest by the King in the House of Commons in 1642 sparked the English Civil War. The wars established the constitutional rights of parliament, a concept legally established as part of the Glorious Revolution in 1688 and the subsequent Bill of Rights 1689. Since that time, no British monarch has entered the House of Commons when it is sitting.[227] Hampden is annually commemorated at the State Opening of Parliament by the British monarch when the doors of the House of Commons are slammed in the face of the monarch's messenger, symbolising the rights of Parliament and its independence from the monarch.[227]

Other important British political figures include Sir

abolitionist. An influential thinker in the history of liberalism, 19th century philosopher, political economist and politician John Stuart Mill justified the freedom of the individual in opposition to unlimited state and social control. A member of the Liberal Party, he was also the first Member of Parliament to call for women's suffrage.[230]

British monarch sits when he or she is crowned at the coronation
, swearing to uphold the law and the church. The monarchy is apolitical and impartial, with a largely symbolic role as head of state.

Robert Walpole is generally regarded as the first British Prime Minister (1721–1742). Twice Prime Minister, Sir Robert Peel, founded the Conservative party (which was expanded by Benjamin Disraeli), and created the modern police force.[231] Margaret Thatcher was the first female British Prime Minister (1979–1990). She became known as the "Iron Lady", a term coined by a Soviet journalist for her uncompromising politics and leadership style. In 1938, Neville Chamberlain believed he had secured "Peace for our time" with Germany, a year before WWII broke out.

English poet

Am I Not A Man And A Brother?", as "promoting the cause of justice, humanity and freedom".[233] Following the Slave Trade Act 1807, Britain pressed other nations to end their trade with a series of treaties,[234] and in 1839 the world's oldest international human rights organisation, Anti-Slavery International, was formed in London, which worked to outlaw slavery abroad; Wilberforce's abolitionist colleague Thomas Clarkson was the organisation's first key speaker.[235] The 1965 suspension of the death penalty for murder had been introduced to Parliament as a private member's bill by Sydney Silverman MP.[236] The world's largest human rights organisation, Amnesty International, was founded by Peter Benenson in London in 1961.[237]

Honours system

The

honours committees, made up of government officials and private citizens from different fields, who meet twice a year to discuss the candidates and make recommendations for appropriate honours to be awarded by the King.[238]

Historically a

damehood. The ceremony often takes place at Buckingham Palace, and family members are invited to attend.[239]

A few examples of knights are Sir Nicholas Winton: for "services to humanity, in saving Jewish children from Nazi occupied Czechoslovakia",[240] Sir Elton John: for "services to music and charitable services", Sir Ridley Scott: for "services to the British film industry",[241] and Sir Richard Branson: for "services to entrepreneurship".[242] Examples of dames are: actress Dame Julie Andrews and singer Dame Shirley Bassey: both for "services to the performing arts", actress Dame Joan Collins: for "services to charity", and Dame Agatha Christie: for "contribution to literature".[243]

Counties

The suffix "

British kingdom before it became an English county. The term "shire" is also not used in the names of the six traditional counties
of Northern Ireland.

Units of measurement

pounds, speed in miles per hour
.

Use of the British

inches.[244] Younger generations tend to use more metric units of measurement, creating a generational gap, for example in short distances and item weight.[245] Although the majority of Brits now use degrees Celsius to measure temperature, the use of Fahrenheit persists in older generations.[245] Distances shown on road signs must be in miles and yards, while miles per hour appear on speed limit signs and car speedometers.[247]

Britain has been transitioning to metric since 1965, when the UK Government announced financial support for metrication with a target of 10 years.[248] When the UK joined the European Economic Community in 1973, the UK re-affirmed its commitment to metrication,[248] but in 2007, the European Commission abandoned completely the deadline for full metrication in the UK.[249]

Driving

By custom and law, traffic in Britain

roundabouts (circular junctions) grew rapidly in the 1960s; there are now more than 10,000 in the UK[252] The Cat's eye retroreflective safety device used in road marking was invented by Percy Shaw
in 1933.

Cuisine

Main article: British cuisine
See also: English cuisine, Northern Irish cuisine, Scottish cuisine, and Welsh cuisine
The full breakfast is among the best known British dishes, consisting of fried egg, sausage, bacon, mushrooms, baked beans, toast, fried tomatoes, and sometimes white or black pudding.

Great Britain in the Middle Ages.[254] The British Empire facilitated a knowledge of India's food tradition of "strong, penetrating spices and herbs".[254]

Each country within the United Kingdom has its own specialities. Traditional examples of

soda farl and potato bread, with the BBC's Simon Majumdar calling it the UK's best full breakfast.[255]

Tea, biscuits, jam and cakes. Tea is the most popular beverage in the UK.
McVitie's chocolate digestive is routinely ranked the UK's favourite snack, and No. 1 biscuit to dunk in tea.

Cornish pasty and pork pie
.

A quintessential British custom,

ginger nuts and shortbread.[259] The first documented figure-shaped biscuits (gingerbread man) was at the court of Elizabeth I in the 16th century.[260]

R. White's soft drinks sold in London. Selling carbonated lemonade
in 1845, by 1887 they sold strawberry soda, raspberry soda and cherryade.

The first English recipe for

Mrs. Mary Eales's Receipts in London in 1718, and arguably the earliest reference to an edible ice cream cone, appears in Charles Elmé Francatelli's 1846 The Modern Cook.[261]
The 18th-century English aristocrat
R. White's Lemonade sold in 1845. By 1887 they sold a wide variety of soft drink flavours. Irn-Bru is the best-selling soft drink in Scotland. Invented by a Newcastle pharmacist in 1927, Lucozade
is the No. 1 sports drink in the UK.

Sausages are commonly eaten as

Jaffa cakes; the best-selling cake in the UK. Marmalade is a popular British spread for toast or sandwich: a spread famous for its association with Paddington Bear, a beloved bear in British culture that featured in the critically acclaimed films Paddington (2014) and Paddington 2 (2017).[264]

Victoria sponge from an English village fête. Competitive baking is part of the traditional village fête, inspiring The Great British Bake Off
television series.

Home

Victoria sponge (named after Queen Victoria who enjoyed a slice with her tea), was created following the discovery of baking powder by English food manufacturer Alfred Bird in 1843, which enabled the sponge to rise higher in cakes.[265]

The

Cavendish bananas were cultivated by Sir Joseph Paxton in the greenhouses of Chatsworth House, Derbyshire in 1836.[269] Named after William Cavendish, they make up the vast majority of bananas consumed in the western world.[269]

whiskey distillery in the world.[270]

The

English Premier League and Scottish Premier League games (or for international tournaments, the FIFA World Cup). The pub quiz
was established in the UK in the 1970s.

Initially created to draw in pre-literate drinkers,

English beers such as bitter, mild, stout and brown ale. Whisky originated in Ireland and Scotland in the Middle Ages: Irish whiskey and Scotch whisky.[273]

roast potatoes
, mashed potatoes and brussels sprouts

On Christmas Day, goose was previously served at

Christmas crackers are an integral part of Christmas celebrations, often pulled before or after dinner, or at parties.[277]

Chicken tikka masala, served atop rice. An Anglo-Indian meal, it is among the UK's most popular dishes.

Chinese restaurants and takeaways (in addition to Indian) are among the most popular ethnic food in the UK.[278] Chinese takeaways are a common sight in towns throughout the UK, and many serve a pseudo-Chinese cuisine based on western tastes (such as chicken fried rice, chips and curry sauce).[279]

The earliest recipe for the

gas chromatograph, a device that allowed scientists to understand chemical compounds behind complex flavours such as cheese.[282] In 1954, Irish crisps company Tayto produced the first seasoned crisps: Cheese & Onion.[283] Golden Wonder (Smiths' main competitor in Britain) produced their Cheese & Onion version, and Smith's countered with Salt & Vinegar (tested first by their north-east England subsidiary Tudor) which launched nationally in 1967, starting a two-decade-long flavour war.[284][285] The crisp market in the UK is led by Walkers
(who introduced their own flavours in 1954), holding 56% of the market share.

Cadbury chocolate bars (Dairy Milk back of tray), circa 1910

The

stick of rock (a hard cylindrical stick-shaped boiled sugar) is a traditional British seaside sweet, commonly sold at seaside resorts throughout the UK such as Brighton, Portrush and Blackpool. A "99 Flake" (commonly called a "99") which consists of ice cream in a cone with a Cadbury Flake inserted in it, is a hugely popular British dessert.[289]

Sport

Main article: Sport in the United Kingdom
FA Cup finals. Wembley also hosts concerts: Adele's 28 June 2017 concert was attended by 98,000 fans, a stadium record for a music event in the UK.[290]

Most of the major sports have separate administrative structures and national teams for each of the

Victorian Britain, in 2012, IOC President Jacques Rogge stated; "This great, sports-loving country is widely recognized as the birthplace of modern sport. It was here that the concepts of sportsmanship and fair play were first codified into clear rules and regulations. It was here that sport was included as an educational tool in the school curriculum".[291][292]

Football

Both in participation and viewing, the

final peaked at 32.30 million viewers, making it the most watched television event ever in the UK.[43]

The four home nations have produced some of the greatest players in the game's history, including, from England,

Tottenham Hotspur and Manchester City. Scotland's Celtic and Rangers also have a global fanbase. Leicester City
's 2016 Premier League title win is regarded among the greatest sporting upsets ever.

Sunday league football (a form of amateur football). Amateur matches throughout the UK often take place in public parks.

The best-placed teams in the domestic leagues of England and Scotland qualify for Europe's premier competition, the

1927
.

The practice of "jumpers for goalposts" alludes to

Canterbury Tales) he uses the following line: "rolleth under foot as doth a ball".[300]

"Cwm Rhondda"
"You're Not Singing Any More" chants are sung to the Welsh hymn.
Problems playing this file? See media help.

Football in Britain is renowned for the intense rivalries between clubs and the passion of the supporters, which includes a tradition of

Local Hero" by Dire Straits frontman and Newcastle United fan Mark Knopfler, is played before the start of every Liverpool and Newcastle home game.[303]

Throughout the UK,

floodlights in 1950, and night games attracted increasingly large crowds of fans–some of them unruly—as well as large television audiences. Architects built bigger stadia, and "their cantilevered constructions dwarfing mean streets, supplanted the cathedral as a symbol of the city's identity and aspirations".[304]

Golf

The modern game of golf originated in Scotland, with the Fife town of St Andrews known internationally as the "home of golf".[305] and to many golfers the Old Course, an ancient links course dating to before 1574, is considered to be a site of pilgrimage.[306] In 1764, the standard 18 hole golf course was created at St Andrews when members modified the course from 22 to 18 holes.[307] Golf is documented as being played on Musselburgh Links, East Lothian, Scotland as early as 2 March 1672, which is certified as the oldest golf course in the world by Guinness World Records.[308] The oldest known rules of golf were compiled in March 1744 in Leith.[309]

The oldest golf tournament in the world, and the first major championship in golf, The Open Championship, first took place in Ayrshire, Scotland in 1860, and today it is played on the weekend of the third Friday in July.[310] Golf's first superstar Harry Vardon, a member of the fabled Great Triumvirate who were pioneers of the modern game, won the Open a record six times. Since the 2010s, three Northern Irish golfers have had major success; Graeme McDowell, Darren Clarke and four time major winner Rory McIlroy.[311] The biennial golf competition, the Ryder Cup, is named after English businessman Samuel Ryder who sponsored the event and donated the trophy.[312] Sir Nick Faldo is the most successful British Ryder Cup player.

Rugby

Millennium Stadium, Cardiff, Wales prior to a Wales vs England Six Nations Championship game. The annual rugby union tournament (which includes Scotland and Ireland) takes place over six weeks from late January/early February to mid March.

In 1845,

Celtic League in Ireland, Scotland, Wales and (since 2010) Italy. Of Cornish origin, the chant "Oggy Oggy Oggy, Oi Oi Oi!" is associated with rugby union (and its personalised variant with football); it inspired the "Maggie Maggie Maggie, Out Out Out!" chant by opponents of Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher in the 1980s. In 1895, rugby league was created in Huddersfield, West Riding of Yorkshire, as the result of a split with the other Rugby code. The Super League is the sports top-level club competition in Britain, and the sport is especially popular in towns in the northern English counties of Yorkshire, Lancashire and Cumbria. The Challenge Cup
is the major rugby league cup competition.

Tennis

Wimbledon. The world's oldest tennis tournament, it has the longest sponsorship in sport with Slazenger supplying tennis balls to the event since 1902.[315]

The modern game of

Silver Jubilee of Queen Elizabeth II (the Queen attended Wimbledon for the first time since 1962 to watch the final). The 2013 and 2016 Wimbledon champion, Scotland's Andy Murray, is Britain's most recent male Grand Slam winner. In 2021, Emma Raducanu
became the most recent British female Grand Slam winner.

Boxing

Featherweight champion "Prince" Naseem Hamed was a major name in boxing and 1990s British pop culture.

The

'Queensberry rules', the code of general rules in boxing, was named after John Douglas, 9th Marquess of Queensberry in 1867, that formed the basis of modern boxing.[320] Britain's first heavyweight world champion Bob Fitzsimmons made boxing history as the sport's first three-division world champion. The 1980s saw the emergence of heavyweight Frank Bruno who would become hugely popular with the British public. In the 1990s, Chris Eubank, Nigel Benn, Steve Collins and Michael Watson had a series of fights against each other in the super-middleweight division, drawing audiences of up to 20 million in the UK. Eubank's eccentric personality made him one of the most recognisable celebrities in the UK along with the cocky "Prince" Naseem Hamed. The Nigel Benn vs. Gerald McClellan fight in 1995 drew 13 million. Other big draw fighters in the UK included Lennox Lewis, Joe Calzaghe and Ricky Hatton
.

Cricket

Cricketer W. G. Grace, with his long beard and MCC cap, was the most famous British sportsman in the Victorian era.

The modern game of

round arm bowling was legalised, followed by the historical legalisation of overarm bowling in 1864.[321] In 1876–77, England took part in the first-ever Test match against Australia. Influential to the development of the sport, W. G. Grace is regarded as one of the greatest cricket players, devising most of the techniques of modern batting.[322] His fame endures; Monty Python and the Holy Grail uses his image as "the face of God" during the sequence in which God sends the knights out on their quest for the grail. The rivalry between England and Australia gave birth to The Ashes in 1882 that has remained Test cricket's most famous contest, and takes place every two years to high television viewing figures. The County Championship is the domestic competition in England and Wales. England have hosted the Cricket World Cup five times, and are the reigning champions, having won in 2019
.

Horse racing

Originating in 17th and 18th-century England, the Thoroughbred is a horse breed best known for its use in horse racing. Horse racing was popular with the aristocrats and royalty of British society, earning it the title "Sport of Kings".[323] Named after Edward Smith-Stanley, 12th Earl of Derby, The Derby was first run in 1780. The race serves as the middle leg of the Triple Crown, preceded by the 2000 Guineas and followed by the St Leger. The name "Derby" has since become synonymous with great races all over the world, and as such has been borrowed many times in races abroad.[324]

The

National Hunt horse race the Grand National, is held annually at Aintree Racecourse in early April. It is the most watched horse race in the UK, attracting casual observers, and three-time winner Red Rum is the most successful racehorse in the event's history. Red Rum is the best-known racehorse in the UK, named by 45% of Britons, with Black Beauty (from Anna Sewell's novel) in second with 33%.[325]

Bolton company

running spikes appear in the book, Golden Kicks: The Shoes that changed Sport.[326] They were made famous by 1924 100 m Olympic champion Harold Abrahams who would be immortalised in Chariots of Fire, the British Oscar winning film.[326] Foster's grandsons formed the sportswear company Reebok in Bolton.[326]

Motor sports

The

Aston Martin
.

National sporting events

Other major sporting events in the UK include the London Marathon, and The Boat Race on the River Thames. The most successful male rower in Olympic history, Steve Redgrave won gold medals at five consecutive Olympic Games. Cycling is a popular physical activity in the UK. In 1888, inventor Frank Bowden founded the Raleigh Bicycle Company, and by 1913, Raleigh was the biggest bicycle manufacturing company in the world. The Raleigh Chopper was named in the list of British design icons. In 1965 Tom Simpson became the first British world road race champion, and in 2012 Bradley Wiggins became the first British Tour de France winner. Chris Froome has subsequently won the Tour de France four times (2013, 2015, 2016 and 2017). Welsh cyclist Geraint Thomas won in 2018. Sprint specialist Mark Cavendish has won thirty Tour de France stages, putting him second on the all-time list.

Ice dancers Torvill and Dean in 2011. Their historic gold medal-winning performance at the 1984 Winter Olympics was watched by a British television audience of more than 24 million people.[327]

In

Ice Dance, many of the compulsory moves were developed by dancers from the UK in the 1930s.[328] At the 1984 Winter Olympics, Jayne Torvill and Christopher Dean
won ice dancing gold with the highest-ever score for a single programme. The pair received perfect 6.0 scores from every judge for artistic impression, and twelve 6.0s and six 5.9s overall.

At the 1988 Winter Olympics, ski jumper

Eddie "The Eagle" Edwards gained fame as an underdog. Eddie was portrayed by Taron Egerton in the 2016 biographical sports comedy-drama film Eddie the Eagle
.

Mo Farah is the most successful British track athlete in modern Olympic Games history, winning the 5000 m and 10,000 m events at two Olympic Games.

A great number of major sports originated in the United Kingdom, including association football, golf, tennis,

billiards, squash, curling and badminton, all of which are popular in Britain. Another sport invented in the UK was baseball,[329] and its early form rounders is popular among children in Britain.[330] Snooker and darts are popular indoor games: Stephen Hendry is the seven time world snooker champion, Phil Taylor is the 16 time world darts champion. Snooker player Alex Higgins (nicknamed The Hurricane) and darts player Eric Bristow
(nicknamed The Crafty Cockney) are credited with popularising each sport.

Bodybuilder Reg Park was Mr Britain in 1946 and became Mr Universe in 1951, 1958 and 1965.[331] Gaelic football is very popular in Northern Ireland, with many teams from the north winning the All-Ireland Senior Football Championship since the early 2000s. William Penny Brookes was prominent in organising the format for the modern Olympic Games, and in 1994, then IOC President Juan Antonio Samaranch laid a wreath on Brooke's grave, and said, "I came to pay homage and tribute to Dr Brookes, who really was the founder of the modern Olympic Games".[332]

Participation in women's team sport (in addition to profile in the media) has seen a rapid increase in recent years. Popular women's team sports include

FA WSL (women's football) formed in 2010 (Kelly Smith is seen as a leading figure in the game), Women's Six Nations Championship in rugby union, and Women's Cricket Super League
.

Sub-national sports

The

BBC Overseas Sports Personality of the Year, presented to a non-British sportsperson considered to have made the most substantial contribution to a sport each year which has also captured the imagination of the British public. Recipients have included Pelé (after winning his third World Cup in 1970), Muhammad Ali (after regaining the heavyweight title in 1974), Jonah Lomu (for his performances at the 1995 Rugby World Cup), Ronaldo (for his comeback in winning the 2002 World Cup), and Roger Federer (for his record eighth Wimbledon in 2017).[333]

Healthcare

The founder of modern nursing Florence Nightingale tending to a patient in 1855. An icon of Victorian Britain, she is known as The Lady with the Lamp.

Each of the four countries of the UK has a publicly funded health care system referred to as the National Health Service (NHS). The terms "National Health Service" or "NHS" are also used to refer to the four systems collectively. All of the services were founded in 1948, based on legislation passed by the Labour Government that had been elected in 1945 with a manifesto commitment to implement the Beveridge Report recommendation to create "comprehensive health and rehabilitation services for prevention and cure of disease".[334]

cardiovascular
research in the UK.

The NHS was born out of a long-held ideal that good healthcare should be available to all, regardless of wealth. At its launch by the then minister of health, Aneurin Bevan, on 5 July 1948, it had at its heart three core principles: That it meet the needs of everyone, that it be free at the point of delivery, and that it be based on clinical need, not ability to pay.[335] The NHS had a prominent slot during the 2012 London Summer Olympics opening ceremony directed by Danny Boyle, being described as "the institution which more than any other unites our nation", according to the programme.[336] Cancer Research UK, Alzheimer's Research UK and Together for Short Lives are among hundreds of health charities in the UK.

nursing school at St Thomas' Hospital in London. It was the first secular nursing school in the world, now part of King's College London. Nightingale wrote Notes on Nursing in 1859. The book served as the cornerstone of the curriculum at the Nightingale School and other nursing schools.[337] The Nightingale Pledge is taken by many new nurses in the US (but not the UK), and the annual International Nurses Day (12 May) is celebrated around the world on her birthday. Her social reforms improved healthcare for all sections of society in the UK and around the world.[338]

Pets

Statistics

One of Britain's oldest indigenous breeds, the Bulldog is known as the national dog of Great Britain.[339]

In the UK, about 40% of the population own a pet. The top pets in the UK for 2018 and 2019 are:[340]

  • Dogs: 25%
  • Cats: 17%
  • Rabbits, indoor birds, guinea pigs, hamsters: ≈1%
  • Tortoises and Turtles: 0.7%
  • Lizards: 0.6%

However, the population of pets in the UK declined from 71 million in 2013 (a significant peak) to 51 million in 2018.[341] This decline has seen some reversal as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic; an article published in May 2021 stated that a total of 3.2 million households in the UK had acquired a pet since the start of the pandemic, according to the Pet Food Manufacturers' Association.[342]

History

Founded in 1824, the

Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (RSPCA) is the oldest and largest animal welfare organisation in the world.[343]

Alice in Wonderland
.

The British Shorthair cat is the most popular pedigreed breed in its native country, as registered by the UK's Governing Council of the Cat Fancy (GCCF). The breed's broad cheeks and relatively calm temperament make it a frequent media star. The cat's profile reads: "When gracelessness is observed, the British Shorthair is duly embarrassed, quickly recovering with a 'Cheshire cat smile'".[344] There are almost one million horses and ponies in the UK, with popular native breeds including Clydesdale horse (used as drum horses by the British Household Cavalry), Thoroughbred (used in horse racing), Cleveland Bay (pull carriages in royal processions), Highland pony and Shetland pony.

The UK's indigenous dog breeds include the Bulldog, Jack Russell Terrier, Golden Retriever, Yorkshire Terrier, Cavalier King Charles Spaniel, Airedale Terrier, Beagle, Border Collie, Staffordshire Bull Terrier, English Cocker Spaniel, Scottish Terrier, Welsh Corgi, Bullmastiff, Greyhound, English Springer Spaniel and Old English Sheepdog.

The Kennel Club, with its headquarters in London, is the oldest kennel club in the world, and acts as a lobby group on issues involving dogs in the UK. Its main objectives are to promote the general improvement of dogs and responsible dog ownership.[345] Held since 1891, Crufts is an annual dog show in the UK. The event takes place over four days in early March. In 1928, the very first winner of Best in Show at Crufts was Primley Sceptre, a greyhound.

National costume and dress

Highland dancing in traditional Gaelic dress with its tartan
pattern

As a

English Country Clothing is also very popular among rural folk, flat caps and brogue shoes also forming part of the country clothing.[347]

The Royal Stewart tartan. It is also the personal tartan of Queen Elizabeth II Tartan is used in clothing, such as skirts and scarves, and has also appeared on tins of Scottish shortbread.[348]

Certain military

synthetic dye (Mauveine – a purple colour), which was suitable as a dye of silk and other textiles, helping to revolutionise the world of fashion.[350]

Clarks desert boots.[352]

Queen Victoria in her white wedding dress with Prince Albert on their return from the marriage service at St James's Palace, London, 10 February 1840

British sensibilities have played an influential role in world clothing since the 18th century. Particularly during the

oarsmen of Exeter College, Oxford, who tied the bands of their straw hats around their necks.[354] The Wellington boot (first worn by Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington
) became a staple for outdoor wear.

The tradition of a

Prince Albert in 1840, at a time when white was associated with purity and conspicuous consumption (because it was difficult to keep clean, and thus could not be worn by servants or labourers), and when it was the colour required of girls being presented to the royal court.[355][356] The 1981 wedding dress of Lady Diana Spencer became one of the most famous dresses in the world, and was considered one of the most closely guarded secrets in fashion history.[357]

Fashion

British Vogue
.

London, as one of the world's four fashion capitals, is host to the London Fashion Week – one of the 'Big Four' fashion weeks.[358] Organised by the British Fashion Council, the event takes place twice each year, in February and September. The current venue for most of the "on-schedule" events is Somerset House in central London, where a large marquee in the central courtyard hosts a series of catwalk shows by top designers and fashion houses, while an exhibition, housed within Somerset House itself, showcases over 150 designers. However, many "off-schedule" events, such as On|Off and Vauxhall Fashion Scout, are organised independently and take place at other venues in central London.

British designers whose collections have been showcased at the fashion week include

Princess Diana was a fashion icon whose style was emulated by women around the world.[359]

Fashion designer

Austin Powers comedy series.[362] The English fashion designer Charles Frederick Worth is widely considered the father of Haute couture.[363]

Symbols, flags, and emblems

Union Flag being flown on The Mall, London looking towards Buckingham Palace
Main article: List of national symbols of the United Kingdom, the Channel Islands and the Isle of Man

The United Kingdom as a whole has a number of national symbols, as do its constituent nations. The

Royal coat of arms of the United Kingdom only represents England, Scotland, and Northern Ireland. England occupies the first and fourth quarters of the arms except in Scotland, when its arms take precedence. Britannia is the national personification of the UK, while John Bull
is a personification used in satirical contexts, and the national animals are the lion and the bulldog.

The UK does not have a floral emblem, but each nation does. The

The Royal British Legion
in return for donations to their "Poppy Appeal", which supports all current and former British military personnel.

Traditional communication and greeting cards

The red telephone box and Royal Mail red post box appear throughout the UK.

A familiar sight throughout the UK, the

Sir Rowland Hill's postal reforms in the 1830s where the reduction in postal rates with the invention of the postage stamp (Penny Black) made sending post an affordable means of personal communication.[171]
The red telephone box has appeared in British pop culture, such as in Adele's video "Hello", the front cover of One Direction's album Take Me Home, and the back cover of David Bowie's album The Rise and Fall of Ziggy Stardust and the Spiders from Mars.[365]

The world's first

George V, Edward VIII, George VI and Elizabeth II.[367]

The sending and receiving of greeting cards is an established tradition in the UK, with card sending or card display in the home being an important part of British culture.[368]

Sir Henry Cole devised the concept of sending greetings cards at Christmas time.[369] Designed by John Callcott Horsley for Cole in 1843, the Christmas card accounts for almost half of the volume of greeting card sales in the UK, with over 600 million cards sold annually.[368] The robin is a common sight in gardens throughout the UK. It is relatively tame and drawn to human activities, and is frequently voted Britain's national bird in polls.[370] The robin began featuring on many Christmas cards in the mid-19th century. The association with Christmas arises from postmen in Victorian Britain who wore red jackets and were nicknamed "Robins"; the robin featured on the Christmas card is an emblem of the postman delivering the card.[371]

Sending Valentine's Day cards became hugely popular in Britain in the late 18th century, a practice which has since spread to other nations.[372] The day first became associated with romantic love within the circle of Geoffrey Chaucer in the 14th century, when the tradition of courtly love flourished.[373] In Chaucer's Parlement of Foules (1382) he wrote; For this was on seynt Volantynys day. When euery bryd comets there to chese his make.[373] The modern cliché Valentine's Day poem can be found in the 1784 English nursery rhyme Roses Are Red; "The rose is red, the violet's blue. 'The honey's sweet, and so are you. Thou art my love and I am thine. I drew thee to my Valentine."[374]

In 1797, a British publisher issued The Young Man's Valentine Writer which contained scores of suggested sentimental verses for the young lover unable to compose his own. In 1835, 60,000 Valentine cards were sent by post in the UK, despite postage being expensive.[375] A reduction in postal rates (with the 1840 invention of the postage stamp, the Penny Black) increased the practice of mailing Valentines, with 400,000 sent in 1841.[376] In the UK just under half the population spend money on gifts.[377] Other popular occasions for sending greeting cards in the UK are birthdays, Mother's Day, Easter and Father's Day.[369]

Education

Main article: Education in the United Kingdom
See also: Universities in the United Kingdom

Each country of the United Kingdom has a separate education system. Power over education matters in Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland is devolved but education in England is dealt with by the British government since there is no devolved administration for England.

England

Main article: Education in England
King Alfred the Great statue in Winchester, Hampshire. The 9th-century English king encouraged education in his kingdom, and proposed that primary education be taught in English, with those wishing to advance to holy orders to continue their studies in Latin.

Most schools came under state control in the

Sikh
bangle (kara).

The Oxford Union debate chamber. Called the "world's most prestigious debating society", the Oxford Union has hosted leaders and celebrities.[380]

Although the Minister of Education is responsible to Parliament for education, the day-to-day administration and funding of state schools is the responsibility of

local education authorities
.

England's universities include some of the highest-ranked universities in the world: the University of Cambridge, Imperial College London, the University of Oxford and University College London are all ranked in the global top 10 in the 2010 QS World University Rankings. The London School of Economics has been described as the world's leading social science institution for both teaching and research.[381] The London Business School is considered one of the world's leading business schools and in 2010 its MBA programme was ranked best in the world by the Financial Times.[382] Academic degrees in England are usually split into classes: first class (I), upper second class (II:1), lower second class (II:2) and third (III), and unclassified (below third class).

Northern Ireland

Main article: Education in Northern Ireland

The Northern Ireland Assembly is responsible for education in Northern Ireland. Schools are administered by five Education and Library Boards covering different geographical areas.

Scotland

Main article: Education in Scotland
New College, University of Edinburgh

Scotland has a long history of universal provision of

Royal High School, Edinburgh in 1505,[383] which colonists spread to the New World owing to the high prestige enjoyed by the Scottish educational system). Schools are supported in delivering the National Guidelines and National Priorities by Learning and Teaching Scotland
.

First degree courses at

Ancient Universities
of Great Britain.

Wales

Main article: Education in Wales
Brownies, and Cubs with the local community in Tiverton, Devon on Remembrance Sunday

The

Welsh medium education
as part of the policy of promoting a fully bilingual Wales.

Outdoor education

Robert Baden-Powell, Lieutenant General in the British Army, held the first Scout camp at Brownsea Island in Dorset, England.[385] Baden-Powell wrote the principles of Scouting in Scouting for Boys in 1908.[386] In July 2009, adventurer Bear Grylls became the youngest Chief Scout ever, aged 35. In 2010, scouting in the UK experienced its biggest growth since 1972, taking total membership to almost 500,000.[384]

Sociological issues

Housing

Terraced houses are typical in inner cities and places of high population density.

The UK (England in particular) has a relatively high

terraced houses are widespread, dating back to the aftermath of the Great Fire of London.[387]

As the first industrialised country in the world, the UK has long been urbanised.

stately homes
in rural areas, though only a minority of these are still used as private living accommodation.

In recent times, more detached housing has started to be built. Also, city living has boomed, with city centre populations rising rapidly. Most of this population growth has been accommodated in new apartment blocks in residential schemes in many towns and cities. Demographic changes (see below) are putting great pressure on the housing market, especially in London and the South East.

Living arrangements

Typical 20th-century, three-bedroom semi-detached houses in England

Historically most people in the United Kingdom lived either in conjugal extended families or nuclear families. This reflected an economic landscape where the general populace tended to have less spending power, meaning that it was more practical to stick together rather than go their individual ways. This pattern also reflected gender roles. Men were expected to go out to work and women were expected to stay at home and look after the families.

Mock Tudor house in Scotland. Its timber framing is typical of English Tudor architecture
.

In the 20th century the

affluence and easier divorce have changed gender roles and living arrangements significantly. The general trend is a rise in single people living alone, the virtual extinction of the extended family (outside certain ethnic minority communities), and the nuclear family
arguably reducing in prominence.

From the 1990s, the break-up of the traditional family unit, when combined with low

key workers" such as nurses, other emergency service workers and teachers, who are priced out of most housing, especially in the South East. Some research indicates that in the 21st century young people are tending to continue to live in the parental home for much longer than their predecessors.[389]

Happiness

When Brits were asked to rate their happiness yesterday on a scale of 1 to 10 in 2018, respondent's mean answer was 7.54 (ranked 'High') in 2018. Northern Irish respondents were ranked the happiest of the United Kingdom (with a mean of 7.74), followed by the English (with 7.54), then the Scots (with 7.52) and finally the Welsh (with 7.51).[390]

However, only 25% of women and girls between the ages of 7 and 21 claim to be very happy, which has fallen from 41% in 2009. They claimed that it was due to the pressure from exams and social media, which exerted undue amounts of stress on them. In that category, the oldest were the least happy: 27% of young women aged 17 to 21 claimed they were not happy, compared to 11% in 2009. This negatively influenced their confidence by 61%, health by 50%, relationships by 49% and studying by 39%. 69% of respondents in that age group claimed school exams were the chief stressor, 59% felt pressure from social media was making them less happy, and compared to 5 years ago, more claimed they had experienced unkind, threatening or negative reactions on social media. The proportion of the population who knew someone with mental health issues rose from 62% in 2015 to 71% in 2018. Many young women and girls feel unsafe walking alone: over half aged from 13 to 21 have experienced harassment or know someone who has, and almost half feel unsafe using public transport.[391]

Feminism

The proportion of young girls considering themselves feminists has risen from 35% in 2013 to 47% in 2018. 36% of young women and girls aged 11 to 21 had spoken up about an issue that mattered to them, this rose from 28% in 2011 but only 60% felt they had been listened to. Girls have also become more interested in science, maths and technology. Girls are more likely to want to become leaders in their careers, 53% compared to 42% in 2016. Maria Miller said, "#MeToo may have left its mark in Hollywood but for women and girls around the country their ambitions to succeed are still too often met with sexism. It's important more women and girls are now speaking out about how this behaviour undermines their confidence and mental health; but this harmful, negative behaviour has to be stopped".[391]

Naming conventions

The common naming convention throughout the United Kingdom is for everyone to have one or more

Lee.[393] Since the 19th century middle names
(additional forenames) have become very common and are sometimes taken from the name of a family member.

Most surnames of British origin fall into seven categories:[394]

Shakespeare's 1590s play The Merchant of Venice
.

Traditionally, Christian names were those of

Anglo Saxon
and mythical names enjoyed something of a fashion among the literati. Since the 20th century, however, first names have been influenced by a much wider cultural base.

First names from the British Isles include

Olivia was popularised by Shakespeare's character in the Twelfth Night (1602). Vanessa was created by Jonathan Swift in his poem Cadenus and Vanessa (1713). While it first appeared in late 16th century England, Pamela was popularised after Samuel Richardson named it as the title for his 1740 novel
.

See also:

  • Most popular names of England and Wales
  • Most popular names of Northern Ireland
  • Most popular names of Scotland
  • Most common surnames in England
  • Most common surnames in Northern Ireland
  • Most common surnames in Scotland
  • Most common surnames in Wales

See also

Notes

  1. ^ English is established by de facto usage. In Wales, the Bwrdd yr Iaith Gymraeg is legally tasked with ensuring that "in the conduct of public business and the administration of justice, the English and Welsh languages should be treated on a basis of equality".Welsh Language Act 1993, Office of Public Sector Information, retrieved 3 September 2007 Bòrd na Gàidhlig is tasked with "securing the status of the Gaelic language as an official language of Scotland commanding equal respect to the English language" Gaelic Language (Scotland) Act 2005, Office of Public Sector Information, archived from the original on 15 March 2010, retrieved 9 March 2007
  2. UK Government (European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages, Scottish Executive, archived from the original on 12 October 2008, retrieved 23 August 2007) See also Languages of the United Kingdom
    .

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