Dominion
Part of the Politics series |
Basic forms of government |
---|
List of countries by system of government |
Politics portal |
A dominion was any of several largely
In 1925, the
With the transition of the British Empire into the Commonwealth of Nations after World War II, it was decided that the term Commonwealth country should formally replace dominion for official Commonwealth usage.[2] This decision was made during the 1949 Commonwealth Prime Ministers' Conference when India was intending to become a republic, so that both types of governments could become and remain full members of the Commonwealth, and this term hence refers to the autonomous dominions and republics.
After this, the term dominion without its legal dimension stayed in use for thirty more years for Commonwealth countries which had the crown as head of state, before gradually, particularly after 1953, being replaced by the term realm, as equal realms of the crown of the Commonwealth.
Definition
The term dominion means "that which is mastered or ruled". It was used by the British to describe their colonies or territorial possessions.[3]
Use of dominion to refer to a particular territory within the British Empire dates back to the 16th century and was sometimes used to describe
Under the
Dominion status was formally accorded to Canada, Australia, New Zealand, Newfoundland, South Africa, and the Irish Free State at the 1926 Imperial Conference to designate "autonomous communities within the British Empire, equal in status, in no way subordinate one to another in any aspect of their domestic or external affairs, though united by a common allegiance to the Crown and freely associated as members of the British Commonwealth of Nations".[9]
The British government of
With the adoption of the
Following the
"His/Her Majesty's dominions"
The status of "Dominion" established by the Statute of Westminster in 1931 was capitalised to distinguish it from the more general sense of "within the crown's dominions".[10]
The phrase the crown's dominions or His/Her Majesty's dominions is a legal and constitutional phrase that refers to all the realms and territories of the British sovereign, whether independent or not. These territories include the United Kingdom, and its colonies, including those that had become Dominions. Dependent territories that had never been
Under British nationality law, the status of "Dominion" ceased to exist on January 1, 1949, when it was decided that each Dominion would enact laws pertaining to its own citizenship.[16] However, "Dominion status" itself never ceased to exist within the greater scope of British law, because acts pertaining to "Dominion status", such as the Statute of Westminster 1931, have not been repealed in both the United Kingdom and historic Dominions such as Canada. The term "within the crown's dominions" continues to apply in British law to those territories in which the British monarch remains head of state, and the term "self-governing dominion" is used in some legislation.[15][page needed] When a territory ceases to recognise the monarch as head of state, this status is changed by statute. Thus, for example, the British Ireland Act 1949, recognised that the Republic of Ireland had "ceased to be part of His Majesty's dominions".
Historical development
Responsible government: precursor to Dominion status
The foundation of "Dominion" status followed the achievement of internal self-rule in British Colonies, in the specific form of full
The conditions under which the four separate Australian colonies—
In South Africa, the
The Commonwealth of Australia was recognised as a Dominion in 1901, and the Dominion of New Zealand and the Dominion of Newfoundland were officially given Dominion status in 1907, followed by the Union of South Africa in 1910.
Canadian Confederation and evolution of the term Dominion
In connection with proposals for the future government of British North America, use of the term "Dominion" was suggested by Samuel Leonard Tilley at the London Conference of 1866 discussing the confederation of the Province of Canada (subsequently becoming the provinces of Ontario and Quebec), Nova Scotia and New Brunswick into "One Dominion under the Name of Canada", the first federation internal to the British Empire.[25] Tilley's suggestion was taken from the 72nd Psalm, verse eight, "He shall have dominion also from sea to sea, and from the river unto the ends of the earth", which is echoed in the national motto, "A Mari Usque Ad Mare".[26] The new government of Canada under the British North America Act, 1867 began to use the phrase "Dominion of Canada" to designate the new, larger country. However, neither the Confederation nor the adoption of the title of "Dominion" granted extra autonomy or new powers to this new federal level of government.[27][28] Senator Eugene Forsey wrote that the powers acquired since the 1840s that established the system of responsible government in Canada would simply be transferred to the new Dominion government:
By the time of Confederation in 1867, this system had been operating in most of what is now central and eastern Canada for almost 20 years. The Fathers of Confederation simply continued the system they knew, the system that was already working, and working well.[28]
The constitutional scholar Andrew Heard argues that Confederation did not legally change Canada's colonial status to anything approaching its later status of a Dominion.
At its inception in 1867, Canada's colonial status was marked by political and legal subjugation to British Imperial supremacy in all aspects of government—legislative, judicial, and executive. The Imperial Parliament at Westminster could legislate on any matter to do with Canada and could override any local legislation, the final court of appeal for Canadian litigation lay with the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council in London, the
British Monarch—who was advised only by British ministers in its exercise. Canada's independence came about as each of these sub-ordinations was eventually removed.[27]
When the Dominion of Canada was created in 1867, it was granted powers of self-government to deal with all internal matters, but Britain still retained overall legislative supremacy. This Imperial supremacy could be exercised through several statutory measures. In the first place, the
British Monarch in Council. Secondly, Section 56 provides that the Governor General must forward to "one of Her Majesty's Principal Secretaries of State" in London a copy of any Federal legislation that has been assented to. Then, within two years after the receipt of this copy, the (British) Monarch in Council could disallow an Act. Thirdly, at least four pieces of Imperial legislation constrained the Canadian legislatures. The Colonial Laws Validity Act of 1865 provided that no colonial law could validly conflict with, amend, or repeal Imperial legislation that either explicitly, or by necessary implication, applied directly to that colony. The Merchant Shipping Act of 1894, as well as the Colonial Courts of Admiralty Act of 1890 required reservation of Dominion legislation on those topics for approval by the British Government. Also, the Colonial Stock Act of 1900 provided for the disallowance of any Dominion legislation the British government felt would harm British stockholders of Dominion trustee securities. Most importantly, however, the British Parliament could exercise the legal right of supremacy that it possessed over common law to pass any legislation on any matter affecting the colonies.[27]
For decades, the Dominions did not have their own
Until 1948 any resident of a British colony or Dominion had the status of British subject. In 1935 the Irish Nationality and Citizenship Act created a separate status of Irish national, but stopped short of creating a full citizenship. Canada was the first to create its own citizenship with the Canadian Citizenship Act, 1946, following which the British Nationality Act 1948 created Commonwealth citizenship and the Dominions subsequently created their own citizenships.
As Heard later explained, the British government seldom invoked its powers over Canadian legislation. British legislative powers over Canadian domestic policy were largely theoretical and their exercise was increasingly unacceptable in the 1870s and 1880s. The rise to the status of a Dominion and then full independence for Canada and other possessions of the British Empire did not occur by the granting of titles or similar recognition by the British Parliament but by initiatives taken by the new governments of certain former British dependencies to assert their independence and to establish constitutional precedents.
What is remarkable about this whole process is that it was achieved with a minimum of legislative amendments. Much of Canada's independence arose from the development of new political arrangements, many of which have been absorbed into judicial decisions interpreting the constitution—with or without explicit recognition. Canada's passage from being an integral part of the British Empire to being an independent member of the Commonwealth richly illustrates the way in which fundamental constitutional rules have evolved through the interaction of constitutional convention, international law, and municipal statute and case law.[27]
What was significant about the creation of the Canadian and Australian federations was not that they were instantly granted wide new powers by the Imperial centre at the time of their creation; but that they, because of their greater size and prestige, were better able to exercise their existing powers and lobby for new ones than the various colonies they incorporated could have done separately. They provided a new model which politicians in New Zealand, Newfoundland, South Africa, Ireland, India, Malaysia could point to for their own relationship with Britain. Ultimately, "[Canada's] example of a peaceful accession to independence with a Westminster system of government came to be followed by 50 countries with a combined population of more than 2-billion people."[29]
1907 Imperial Conference
Issues of colonial self-government spilled into foreign affairs with the
The assertiveness of the self-governing countries was recognised in the Imperial Conference of 1907 which, on the motions of the Prime Ministers of Canada and Australia, introduced the idea of the Dominions as self-governing countries by referring to Canada and Australia as Dominions. It also retired the name "Colonial Conference" and mandated that meetings take place regularly to consult the Dominions in running the foreign affairs of the empire.
The Colony of New Zealand, which chose not to take part in Australian federation, became the Dominion of New Zealand on 26 September 1907; Newfoundland became a Dominion on the same day. The Union of South Africa was referred to as a Dominion upon its creation in 1910.
First World War and Treaty of Versailles
The initiatives and contributions of British colonies to the British war effort in the First World War were recognised by Britain with the creation of the Imperial War Cabinet in 1917, which gave them a say in the running of the war. Dominion status as self-governing states, as opposed to symbolic titles granted various British colonies, waited until 1919, when the self-governing Dominions signed the Treaty of Versailles independently of the British government and became individual members of the League of Nations. This ended the purely colonial status of the Dominions.[30]
Irish Free State
The
Balfour Declaration of 1926 and Statute of Westminster
The Balfour Declaration of 1926, and the subsequent Statute of Westminster, 1931, restricted Britain's ability to pass or affect laws outside of its own jurisdiction.
Until 1931, Newfoundland was referred to as a colony of the United Kingdom, as for example, in the 1927 reference to the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council to delineate the Quebec-Labrador boundary.[31] Full autonomy was granted by the United Kingdom parliament with the Statute of Westminster in December 1931. However, the government of Newfoundland "requested the United Kingdom not to have sections 2 to 6[—]confirming Dominion status[—]apply automatically to it[,] until the Newfoundland Legislature first approved the Statute, approval which the Legislature subsequently never gave".[citation needed]
By the request of Australia and New Zealand, the Statute of Westminster was not applied automatically to those two Dominions until their own parliaments confirmed it. Being economically close to Britain and dependent on it for defence, they did not do so until 1942 for Australia and 1947 for New Zealand.
In 1934, following Newfoundland's economic collapse, and with the approval of its own legislature, Britain suspended self-government in Newfoundland and instituted a "
White Dominions
Canada, Australia, New Zealand, the Irish Free State, Newfoundland and South Africa (prior to becoming a republic and leaving the Commonwealth in 1961), with their large populations of European descent, were sometimes collectively referred to as the "White Dominions".[32][page needed]
Dominions
List of Dominions
Country | From | To[‡ 1] | Status |
---|---|---|---|
Canada | 1867 | 1931 |
Continues as a Commonwealth realm and member of the Commonwealth of Nations. Dominion was conferred as the country's title in the 1867 constitution, as a substitute for the title of "kingdom".[25][33][3][34] |
Australia | 1901 | 1942 |
Continues as a Commonwealth realm and member of the Commonwealth of Nations. |
New Zealand | 1907 | 1947 |
Continues as a Commonwealth realm and member of the Commonwealth of Nations. |
Newfoundland | 1907 | 1949 | The colony of Newfoundland enjoyed responsible government from 1855 to 1907 when it became a Dominion.[35] Following the recommendations of a Royal Commission, and at the request of the Legislative Assembly and Legislative Council of Newfoundland, parliamentary government was suspended in 1934 due to severe financial difficulties resulting from the depression and a series of riots against the Newfoundland government in 1932.[36] In 1934 Newfoundland reverted to direct British rule, governed by an unelected commission appointed by the British government.[37] In 1949, it joined Canada and the legislature was restored after 16 years of direct rule by Britain.[38]
|
Union of South Africa | 1910 | 1931 | Continued as a monarchy until it became a republic in 1961 under the Republic of South Africa Constitution Act 1961, passed by the Parliament of South Africa, long title "To constitute the Republic of South Africa and to provide for matters incidental thereto", assented to 24 April 1961 to come into operation on 31 May 1961.[39] |
Irish Free State (1922–1937) Éire (1937–1949)[‡ 2] |
1922 | 1949 | The Republic of Ireland Act 1948 , which came into force on 18 April 1949 and declared that the state was a republic.
|
India | 1947 | 1950 | The Union of India (with the addition of Sikkim from 1975) became a federal republic after its constitution came into effect on 26 January 1950. |
Pakistan (incl. Bangladesh and excl. Gwadar) | 1947 | 1956 | Continued as a monarchy until 1956 when it became a republic under the name "The Islamic Republic of Pakistan": Constitution of 1956.[40] |
Ceylon | 1948 | 1972 | Continued as a monarchy until 1972 when it became a republic under the name of Sri Lanka. |
- ^ There was no single constitutional or legislative change that abolished the status of "dominions". The accession proclamation of 1952 referred to "realms", and the Royal Style and Titles Acts of 1953 changed references to "dominions" in the monarch's titles in the various Dominions to "realms", after which the term dominion generally fell into disuse, and the countries sharing the same monarch as the United Kingdom came to be referred to as realms (with the possible exception of Canada; see also Name of Canada).
- ^ The Irish Free State was renamed Éire in Irish or Ireland in English in 1937. In 1937–1949, the Dominion was referred to as "Eire" by the British government. See also Names of the Irish state.
Australia
Four colonies of Australia had enjoyed responsible government since 1856: New South Wales, Victoria, Tasmania and South Australia.
Canada
The term Dominion is employed in the Constitution Act, 1867 (originally the British North America Act, 1867), and describes the resulting political union. Specifically, the preamble of the act states: "Whereas the Provinces of Canada, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick have expressed their Desire to be federally united into One Dominion under the Crown of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, with a Constitution similar in Principle to that of the United Kingdom ..." Furthermore, Sections 3 and 4 indicate that the provinces "shall form and be One Dominion under the Name of Canada; and on and after that Day those Three Provinces shall form and be One Dominion under that Name accordingly".
According to the Canadian Encyclopedia (1999), "The word came to be applied to the federal government and Parliament, and under the Constitution Act, 1982, 'Dominion' remains Canada's official title."[45]
Usage of the phrase Dominion of Canada was employed as the country's name after 1867, predating the general use of the term Dominion as applied to the other autonomous regions of the British Empire after 1907. The phrase Dominion of Canada does not appear in the 1867 act nor in the Constitution Act, 1982, but does appear in the Constitution Act, 1871, other contemporaneous texts, and subsequent bills. References to the Dominion of Canada in later acts, such as the Statute of Westminster, do not clarify the point because all nouns were formally capitalised in British legislative style. Indeed, in the original text of the Constitution Act, 1867, "One" and "Name" were also capitalised.
While the term may be found in older official documents, and the Dominion Carillonneur still tolls at Parliament Hill, it is now hardly used to distinguish the federal government from the provinces or (historically) Canada before and after 1867. Nonetheless, the federal government continues to produce publications and educational materials that specify the currency of these official titles.[34][50][51] The Constitution Act, 1982 does not mention and does not remove the title, and therefore a constitutional amendment may be required to change it.[33]
The word Dominion has been used with other agencies, laws, and roles:
- Dominion Carillonneur: official responsible for playing the carillons at the Peace Tower since 1916
- Dominion Day (1867–1982): holiday marking Canada's national day; now called Canada Day
- Dominion Observatory (1905–1970): weather observatory in Ottawa; now used as Office of Energy Efficiency, Energy Branch, Natural Resources Canada
- Dominion Lands Act (1872): federal lands act; repealed in 1930
- Dominion Bureau of Statistics (1918–1971): superseded by Statistics Canada
- Dominion Police (1867–1920): merged to form the Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP)
- Herzberg Institute of Astrophysics
- Herzberg Institute of Astrophysics
- Dominion of Canada Rifle Association founded in 1868 and incorporated by an Act of Parliament in 1890
Notable Canadian corporations and organisations (not affiliated with government) that have used Dominion as a part of their name have included:
- The Dominion Bank, opened 1871
- The Toronto-Dominion Bank, its successor since a 1955 merger with the Bank of Toronto; as of 2016 one of the country's major banks
- The Dominion of Canada General Insurance Company, founded in 1887; bought out by Travelers in 2013
- The Dominion Atlantic Railway, in Nova Scotia, formed by the 1894 merger of two railways; controlled by the Canadian Pacific Railway after 1911, shut down in 1994
- Dominion Stores, a supermarket chain founded in 1927; following a series of acquisitions the last Dominion stores were renamed as Metro stores in 2008
- The Dominion Institute, created in 1997 to promote awareness of Canadian history and national identity
- The Historica-Dominion Institute, its successor following a 2009 merger with the Historica Foundation; renamed Historica Canada in 2013
Ceylon
Ceylon, which, as a Crown colony, was originally promised "fully responsible status within the British Commonwealth of Nations", was formally granted independence as a Dominion in 1948. In 1972 it adopted a republican constitution to become the Free, Sovereign and Independent Republic of Sri Lanka. By a new constitution in 1978, it became the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka.
India and Pakistan
Irish Free State / Ireland
The Irish Free State (Ireland from 1937) was a British Dominion between 1922 and 1949. As established by the Irish Free State Constitution Act of the United Kingdom Parliament on 6 December 1922 the new state—which had Dominion status in the likeness of that enjoyed by Canada within the British Commonwealth of Nations—comprised the whole of Ireland. However, provision was made in the Act for the Parliament of Northern Ireland to opt out of inclusion in the Irish Free State, which—as had been widely expected at the time—it duly did one day after the creation of the new state, on 7 December 1922.[59]
Following a plebiscite of the people of the Free State held on 1 July 1937, a new constitution came into force on 29 December of that year, establishing a successor state with the name of "Ireland" which ceased to participate in Commonwealth conferences and events. Nevertheless, the United Kingdom and other member states of the Commonwealth continued to regard Ireland as a Dominion owing to the unusual role accorded to the British Monarch under the Irish External Relations Act of 1936. Ultimately, however, Ireland's Oireachtas passed The Republic of Ireland Act 1948, which came into force on 18 April 1949 and unequivocally ended Ireland's links with the British Monarch and the Commonwealth. This Act was recognised by the United Kingdom in the Ireland Act 1949.
Newfoundland
In 1934, after a series of financial difficulties (owing in part to Newfoundland's railway debt from the 1890s, and its debt from the
New Zealand
The
South Africa
The
Southern Rhodesia
Southern Rhodesia (renamed Zimbabwe in 1980) was a special case in the British Empire. Although it was never a Dominion de jure, it was treated as a Dominion in many respects, and came to be regarded as a de facto Dominion.[69] Southern Rhodesia was formed in 1923 out of territories of the British South Africa Company and established as a self-governing colony with substantial autonomy on the model of the Dominions. The imperial authorities in London retained direct powers over foreign affairs, constitutional alterations, native administration and bills regarding mining revenues, railways and the governor's salary.[70]
Southern Rhodesia was not one of the territories that were mentioned in the 1931
Rhodesia
From Dominions to Commonwealth realms
Initially, the Dominions conducted their own trade policy, some limited foreign relations and had autonomous
The
The Dominions Office merged with the
When the British Nationality Act 1948 entered into force on 1 January 1949, the former Dominions became fully independent, and adopted their own legislation governing nationality. In British nationality law, the Dominions were then referred to as "independent Commonwealth countries"; other former British dependencies that joined the Commonwealth were added to the list of "independent Commonwealth Countries" as they gained independence.[16]
The independence of the separate realms was emphasised after the accession of Queen
The practice of designating a diplomatic representative named "High Commissioner" (instead of "ambassador") for communication between the government of a Dominion and the British government in London continues in respect of members of the Commonwealth, including those that were never Dominions and those that have become republics.
Newly independent territories sometimes referred to as Dominions
The term "Dominion" remained in informal use for some years when relating to newly independent territories and was sometimes used to refer to the status of former British territories during an immediate post-independence period while the British monarch remained head of state, and the form of government a Westminster-style parliamentary democracy. The legal status of Dominion in British nationality law had ceased to exist on 1 January 1949. However, leaders of the independence movements sometimes called for Dominion status as one stage in the negotiations for independence (for example, Kwame Nkrumah of Ghana).[14] Moreover, while these independent states retained the British monarch as head of state, they remained "within the Crown's dominions" in British law, leading to the confusion of terminology.[15][page needed] These constitutions were typically replaced by republican constitutions within a few years.
After World War II, Britain attempted to repeat the Dominion model in decolonising the Caribbean. ... Though several colonies, such as Guyana and Trinidad and Tobago, maintained their formal allegiance to the British monarch, they soon revised their status to become republics. Britain also attempted to establish a Dominion model in decolonising Africa, but it, too, was unsuccessful. ... Ghana, the first former colony declared a Dominion in 1957, soon demanded recognition as a republic. Other African nations followed a similar pattern throughout the 1960s: Nigeria, Tanganyika, Uganda, Kenya, and Malawi. In fact, only Gambia, Sierra Leone, and Mauritius retained their Dominion status for more than three years.[80]
As the above quote indicates, the term Dominion was sometimes applied in Africa to Ghana (formerly the
See also
Notes and references
- ^ "Balfour Declaration, Clause II" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 16 July 2005. Retrieved 25 June 2022.
- OCLC 870098208.
- ^ a b Forsey, E. A.; Hayday, M. "Dominion of Canada". The Canadian Encyclopedia. Archived from the original on 8 April 2022. Retrieved 18 May 2023.
- ^ "Parliamentary questions". Parliamentary Debates (Hansard). 5 November 1934. Archived from the original on 13 July 2009. Retrieved 11 June 2010.
- ^ Heard, Andrew (1990). "Canadian independence". Archived from the original on 21 February 2009. Retrieved 12 February 2021.
When the Dominion of Canada was created in 1867 it was granted powers of self-government to deal with all internal matters, but Britain still retained overall legislative supremacy.
- OL 18674652M.
- ^ Cyprus (Annexation) Order in Council, 1914, dated 5 November 1914.
- ^ Order quoted in The American Journal of International Law, "Annexation of Cyprus by Great Britain"[1]
- ^ a b "Dominion". Encyclopædia Britannica. 7 December 2011. Archived from the original on 26 January 2021. Retrieved 13 February 2021.
Although there was no formal definition of dominion status, a pronouncement by the Imperial Conference of 1926 described Great Britain and the dominions as "autonomous communities within the British Empire, equal in status, in no way subordinate one to another in any aspect of their domestic or external affairs, though united by a common allegiance to the Crown and freely associated as members of the British Commonwealth of Nations."
- ^ S2CID 145071117.
- ^ "The Covenant of the League of Nations". The Avalon Project at Yale Law School. 1924. Article 1. Archived from the original on 24 July 2011. Retrieved 20 April 2009.
- OL 4739437M.
- ^ "Commonwealth association of states". Encyclopædia Britannica. 11 August 2020. Archived from the original on 7 November 2020. Retrieved 13 February 2021.
- ^ ISSN 0308-6534.
- ^ from the original on 14 April 2022. Retrieved 14 April 2022.
- ^ a b "Historical background information on nationality (nationality guidance)". GOV.UK. 22 May 2023. Archived from the original on 14 April 2022. Retrieved 14 April 2022.
- ^ Link to the Australian Constitutions Act 1850 on the website of the National Archives of Australia: www.foundingdocs.gov.au Archived 3 December 2007 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Link to the New South Wales Constitution Act 1855, on the Web site of the National Archives of Australia: www.foundingdocs.gov.au Archived 3 December 2007 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Link to the Victoria Constitution Act 1855, on the Web site of the National Archives of Australia: www.foundingdocs.gov.au Archived 3 December 2007 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Link to the Constitution Act 1855 (SA), on the Web site of the National Archives of Australia: www.foundingdocs.gov.au Archived 3 December 2007 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Link to the Constitution Act 185 (Tasmania), on the Web site of the National Archives of Australia: www.foundingdocs.gov.au Archived 3 December 2007 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Link to the Order in Council of 6 June 1859, which established the Colony of Queensland, on the Web site of the National Archives of Australia."Documenting Democracy". Archived from the original on 1 January 2009. Retrieved 1 February 2009.
- ^ The "Northern Territory of New South Wales" was physically separated from the main part of NSW. In 1863, the bulk of it was transferred to South Australia, except for a small area that became part of Queensland. See: Letters Patent annexing the Northern Territory to South Australia, 1863 Archived 1 June 2011 at the Wayback Machine. In 1911, the Commonwealth of Australia agreed to assume responsibility for administration of the Northern Territory, which was regarded by the government of South Australia as a financial burden.www.foundingdocs.gov.au Archived 31 August 2006 at the Wayback Machine. The NT did not receive responsible government until 1978.
- ^ Link to the Constitution Act 1890, which established self-government in Western Australia: www.foundingdocs.gov.au[permanent dead link]
- ^ OL 3966721M.
- ^ "The London Conference December 1866 – March 1867". www.collectionscanada.gc.ca. Archived from the original on 22 November 2006. Retrieved 11 June 2010.
- ^ a b c d Heard, Andrew (1990). "Canadian Independence". Archived from the original on 6 May 2009. Retrieved 5 February 2008.
- ^ a b Forsey 2005, p. 3.
- Postmedia Network Inc. Archived from the originalon 15 May 2014.
- S2CID 147122057.
- ^ In the Matter of the Boundary between the Dominion of Canada and the Colony of Newfoundland in the Labrador Peninsula, [1927] UKPC 25 (PC).
- OCLC 68221208.
- ^ OCLC 54971866. Archived from the originalon 17 March 2015.
Ironically, defenders of the title dominion who see signs of creeping republicanism in such changes can take comfort in the knowledge that the Constitution Act, 1982, retains the title and requires a constitutional amendment to alter it.
- ^ a b "National Flag of Canada Day: How Did You Do?". Department of Canadian Heritage, Government of Canada. Archived from the original on 13 July 2007. Retrieved 7 February 2008.
The issue of our country's legal title was one of the few points on which our constitution is not entirely homemade. The Fathers of Confederation wanted to call the country "the Kingdom of Canada". However the British government was afraid of offending the Americans so it insisted on the Fathers finding another title. The term "Dominion" was drawn from Psalm 72. In the realms of political terminology, the term dominion can be directly attributed to the Fathers of Confederation and it is one of the very few, distinctively Canadian contributions in this area. It remains our country's official title.
- ^ The Statesman's Year Book, p. 302
- ^ The Statesman's Year Book, p. 303
- ^ Newfoundland Act, 1933, 24 Geo. 5 (UK), c. 2.
- ^ The Statesman's Year Book
- ^ "Republic of South Africa Constitution Act". Statutes of the Union of South Africa, 1961. Pretoria: Government Printer. pp. 346–424. Archived from the original on 25 March 2023. Retrieved 18 May 2023.
- ^ "Archives". Republic of Rumi. Archived from the original on 14 June 2013. Retrieved 12 July 2013.
- OL 32144166M.
- ^ "Order-in-Council establishing Representative Government in Queensland 6 June 1859 (UK)". Documenting a Democracy: Australia's Story. Canberra: National Archives of Australia. Archived from the original on 22 July 2008.
- ^ Constitution Act 1890 (UK), which came into effect as the Constitution of Western Australia when proclaimed in WA on 21 October 1890, and establishing responsible government in WA from that date; Australian Government's "Documenting a Democracy" website: www.foundingdocs.gov.au Archived 22 July 2008 at the Wayback Machine
- OCLC 64449961.
- OCLC 44803114.
- S2CID 147122057.
- ISBN 978-0-85772-867-8.
- ^ "November 8, 1951 (21st Parliament, 5th Session)". Canadian Hansard Dataset. Archived from the original on 9 March 2021. Retrieved 9 April 2019.
- ^ Bowden, J.W.J. (2015). "'Dominion': A Lament". The Dorchester Review. 5 (2): 58–64.
- ^ "The Prince of Wales 2001 Royal Visit: April 25 - April 30; Test Your Royal Skills". Department of Canadian Heritage. 2001. Archived from the original on 11 July 2006. Retrieved 7 February 2008.
As dictated by the British North America Act, 1867, the title is Dominion of Canada. The term is a uniquely Canadian one, implying independence and not colonial status, and was developed as a tribute to the Monarchical principle at the time of Confederation.
- ^ Forsey 2005, p. 8, "The two small points on which our constitution is not entirely homemade are, first, the legal title of our country, 'Dominion', and, second, the provisions for breaking a deadlock between the Senate and the House of Commons".
- ISBN 9780415329194
- ^ "The Commonwealth of India Bill 1925". Constituent assembly debates & India. Archived from the original on 19 July 2018. Retrieved 30 May 2018.
- ISBN 9783960670032. Retrieved 30 May 2018.
- ISBN 9781845113476.
- ^ Indian Independence Act 1947, "An Act to make provision for the setting up in India of two independent Dominions, to substitute other provisions for certain provisions of the Government of India Act 1935, which apply outside those Dominions, and to provide for other matters consequential on or connected with the setting up of those Dominions" passed by the U.K. parliament 18 July 1947."Indian Independence Act 1947". Archived from the original on 30 June 2012. Retrieved 17 July 2012.
- ^ The Statesman's Year Book, p. 635
- ^ The Statesman's Year Book, p. 1002
- ^ On 7 December 1922 (the day after the establishment of the Irish Free State) the Parliament resolved to make the following address to the King so as to opt out of the Irish Free State: "MOST GRACIOUS SOVEREIGN, We, your Majesty's most dutiful and loyal subjects, the Senators and Commons of Northern Ireland in Parliament assembled, having learnt of the passing of the Irish Free State Constitution Act, 1922, being the Act of Parliament for the ratification of the Articles of Agreement for a Treaty between Great Britain and Ireland, do, by this humble Address, pray your Majesty that the powers of the Parliament and Government of the Irish Free State shall no longer extend to Northern Ireland". Source: Northern Ireland Parliamentary Report, 7 December 1922 Archived 19 March 2009 at the Wayback Machine and Anglo-Irish Treaty, sections 11, 12 Archived 8 November 2017 at the Wayback Machine.
- ^ Newfoundland Act, 1933, 24 & 25 Geo. V (UK), c. 2.
- ^ "The Commission of Government, 1934-1949". www.heritage.nf.ca. Archived from the original on 23 October 2022. Retrieved 23 October 2022.
- ^ "The Commission of Government, 1934-1949". www.heritage.nf.ca. Archived from the original on 23 October 2022. Retrieved 23 October 2022.
- ^ "British North America Act, 1949" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 17 June 2022. Retrieved 14 October 2022.
- ^ "History, Constitutional - The Legislative Authority of the New Zealand Parliament - 1966 Encyclopaedia of New Zealand". www.teara.govt.nz. 22 April 2009. Archived from the original on 28 April 2009. Retrieved 11 June 2010.
- ^ a b "Dominion status". NZHistory. Archived from the original on 3 June 2010. Retrieved 11 June 2010.
- ^ "Constitution Act 1986". New Zealand Legislation. Wellington: Parliamentary Counsel Office, Government of New Zealand. Archived from the original on 18 May 2023. Retrieved 18 May 2023.
- ^ The Stateman's Year Book p. 1156
- ^ Wikisource: South Africa Act 1909
- ^ Roiron, Virginie (2013). "Challenged Commonwealth? The Decolonisation of Rhodesia" (PDF). Cercles. No. 28. p. 171.
- ^ OCLC 4282978.
- OCLC 234239848.
- .
- OCLC 21600467.
- OCLC 1006211868.
- ^ Statute of Westminster Adoption Act 1942 (Act no. 56 of 1942). The long title for the Act was "To remove Doubts as to the Validity of certain Commonwealth Legislation, to obviate Delays occurring in its Passage, and to effect certain related purposes, by adopting certain Sections of the Statute of Westminster, 1931, as from the Commencement of the War between His Majesty the King and Germany." Link: www.foundingdocs.gov.au Archived 16 July 2005 at the Wayback Machine.
- OL 5575065M.
- ISBN 978-0-7146-4378-6.
- OCLC 1058198728.
- OCLC 11366.
- OL 11949316M.
- ISBN 978-1-349-33471-1.
- ISBN 978-0-333-78615-4.
- ^ Mr. K.N. Gichoya, bringing a motion on 11 June 1964 in the Kenyan House of Representatives that Kenya be made a Republic: "I should make it clear to those who must know our status today, we are actually a dominion of the United Kingdom in the same way as ... Canada, Australia and New Zealand." Kenya National Assembly Official Record (Hansard), 1st Parliament, 2nd Session, Vol. 3 (Part 1), Column 135.
- ISBN 978-0-333-78615-4.
- ISBN 3-928049-69-0.
- ISBN 978-0-333-78615-4.
- ISBN 978-1-4678-8886-8.
- ISBN 978-07614-5668-1.
- ISBN 978-0-333-78615-4.
- ^ Manorama Year Book. Vol. 10. India. 1975. p. 181.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - ^ "Barbados becomes a republic and parts ways with the Queen". BBC News. 30 November 2020. Archived from the original on 30 November 2021. Retrieved 11 May 2022.
- Buckley, F. H. (2014). The Once and Future King: The Rise of Crown Government in America. New York: Encounter Books. OCLC 855580605.
- Choudry, Sujit. 2001 (?). "Constitution Acts" (based on looseleaf by Hogg, Peter W.). Constitutional Keywords. University of Alberta, Centre for Constitutional Studies: Edmonton.
- Holland, R. F. (1981). Britain and the Commonwealth Alliance 1918–1939. London: Macmillan. OL 10495276M.
- Forsey, E. A. (2005). How Canadians Govern Themselves (PDF) (6th ed.). Ottawa: Her Majesty the Queen in Right of Canada. (PDF) from the original on 6 January 2018. Retrieved 13 May 2023.
- Martin, R. (November 1994). "A Lament for British North America". The Machray Review. No. 5. The Prayer Book Society of Canada. Archived from the original on 17 October 2005.
Further reading
- Reid, G. H. (1912). The Australian Commonwealth and her relation to the British Empire: An Address delivered by the Right Hon. Sir George Reid G.C.M.G., K.C., D.C.L. to the Canadian Club of Ottawa at a luncheon given in the Chateau Laurier on Monday, 9th September 1912. Ottawa: the Mortimer Press. OL 7118827M.