British Empire in World War II

Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.

Propaganda poster promoting the joint war-effort of the British Empire and Commonwealth, 1939
See also: Military history of the United Kingdom during World War II and Diplomatic history of World War II

When the

British Commonwealth".[1] In 1939 the British Empire and the Commonwealth together comprised a global power, with direct or de facto political and economic control of 25% of the world's population, and of 30% of its land mass.[2]

The contribution of the British Empire and Commonwealth in terms of manpower and

the Faroe Islands, and Madagascar.[3]

The Commonwealth defeated, held back or slowed the Axis powers for three years while mobilizing its

occupied Europe for the Allied cause. Canada delivered almost $4 billion in direct financial aid to the United Kingdom, and Australia and New Zealand began[when?] shifting to domestic production[clarification needed] to provide material aid to US forces in the Pacific.[citation needed] Following the US entry into the war in December 1941, the Commonwealth and the United States coordinated their military efforts and resources globally. As the scale of the US military involvement and industrial production increased, the US undertook command in many theatres, relieving Commonwealth forces for duty elsewhere, and expanding the scope and intensity of Allied military efforts.[4][5] Co-operation with the Soviet Union
also developed. However, it proved difficult to co-ordinate the defence of far-flung colonies and Commonwealth countries from simultaneous attacks by the Axis powers. In part this difficulty was exacerbated by disagreements over priorities and objectives, as well as over the deployment and control of joint forces.

Although the British Empire emerged from the war as one of the primary victors, regaining all colonial territories that had been lost during the conflict, it had become financially, militarily and logistically exhausted. The British Empire's position as a global superpower was supplanted by the United States, and Britain hitherto no longer played as great of a role in

decolonisation.[6][7]

Pre-war plans for defence

From 1923, defence of British colonies and protectorates in East Asia and Southeast Asia was centred on the "Singapore strategy". This made the assumption that Britain could send a fleet to its naval base in Singapore within two or three days of a Japanese attack, while relying on France to provide assistance in Asia via its colony in Indochina and, in the event of war with Italy, to help defend British territories in the Mediterranean.[8] Pre-war planners did not anticipate the fall of France: Nazi occupation, the loss of control over the Channel, and the employment of French Atlantic ports as forward bases for U-boats directly threatened Britain itself, forcing a significant reassessment of naval defence priorities.

During the 1930s, a triple threat emerged for the British Commonwealth in the form of militaristic governments in Germany, Italy, and Japan.[9] Germany threatened Britain itself, while Italy and Japan's imperial ambitions looked set to clash with the British imperial presence in the Mediterranean and East Asia respectively. However, there were differences of opinion within the UK and the Dominions as to which posed the most serious threat, and whether any attack would come from more than one power at the same time.

Declaration of war against Germany

Sir Robert Menzies broadcasting to Australia the news of the outbreak of war, 1939

On 1 September 1939, Germany

Dominions
so each decided their course separately.

Australian Prime Minister

neutrality but was defeated by the pro-war vote in the Union Parliament, led by General Jan Smuts, who then replaced Hertzog. Canadian Prime Minister Mackenzie King declared support for Britain on the day of the British declaration, but also stated that it was for Parliament to make the formal declaration, which it did so one week later on 10 September. Ireland, though still a member of the Commonwealth, severed its legal ties as a dominion in 1937[10] and chose to remain neutral throughout the war.[11]

Empire and Commonwealth contribution

British Empire and Commonwealth forms of government and production c 1940
Kenya Royal Naval Volunteer Reserve 1945

While the war was initially intended to be limited, resources were mobilized quickly, and the first shots were fired almost immediately. Just hours after the Australian declaration of war, a gun at

colony of Newfoundland, on Canada's east coast, the closest point in North America to Germany. Fearing the loss of a land link[clarification needed] to the British Isles, Canada was also requested to occupy Iceland, which it did from June 1940 to the spring of 1941, following the initial British invasion.[17]

From mid-June 1940, following the rapid German invasions and occupations of

2nd Canadian Infantry Division
, pilots for two air squadrons, and several warships to Britain to face a possible invasion from the continent.

In December 1941,

Malaya, the United States naval base at Pearl Harbor, and Hong Kong
.

Substantial financial support was provided by Canada to the UK and Commonwealth dominions, in the form of over $4 billion in aid through the

Europe, North Africa, and the South West Pacific
.

The British Commonwealth Air Training Plan (also known as the "Empire Air Training Scheme") was established by the governments of Australia, Canada, New Zealand and the UK resulting in:

  • joint training at flight schools in Canada, South Africa, Southern Rhodesia, Australia and New Zealand;[20][21]
  • formation of new squadrons of the Dominion air forces, known as "Article XV squadrons" for service as part of Royal Air Force operational commands, and;
  • in practice, the pooling of RAF and Dominion air force personnel, for posting to both RAF and Article XV squadrons.

Finances

Britain borrowed everywhere it could and made heavy purchases of munitions and supplies in India and Canada during the war, as well as other parts of the Empire and neutral countries. Canada also made gifts. Britain's sterling balances around the world amounted to £3.4 billion in 1945 or the equivalent of about $US 200 billion in 2016 dollars.[22] However, Britain treated this as a long-term loan with no interest and no specified repayment date. Just when the money would be made available by London was an issue, for the British treasury was nearly empty by 1945.[23]

Crisis in the Mediterranean

Second Officer Kalyani Sen and Chief Officer Margaret I. Cooper, Women's Royal Indian Naval Service, 1945

In June 1940, France

Mediterranean were of a higher priority than the Far East to defend.[24] Australia and New Zealand were told by telegram that they should turn to the United States for help in defending their homeland should Japan attack:[25]

Without the assistance of France we should not have sufficient forces to meet the combined German and Italian navies in European waters and the Japanese fleet in the Far East. In the circumstances envisaged, it is most improbable that we could send adequate reinforcements to the Far East. We should therefore have to rely on the United States of America to safeguard our interests there.[26]

Commonwealth forces played a major role in North and East Africa following Italy's entry to the war, participating in the invasion of Italian Libya and Somaliland, but were forced to retreat after Churchill diverted resources to Greece and Crete.[27]

Fall of Singapore

Allied troops surrendering to Japanese troops in Singapore
Main article: Fall of Singapore

The Battle of Singapore was fought in the

South East Asia and nicknamed the "Gibraltar of the East". The fighting in Singapore lasted from 31 January 1942 to 15 February 1942. It followed a humiliating naval engagement
in December 1941 in which two British capital ships were sunk.

It resulted in the

Malayan campaign. Britain's Prime Minister Winston Churchill called the ignominious fall of Singapore to the Japanese the "worst disaster" and "largest capitulation" in British history.[29]

Africa

British (red) and Belgian (maroon) colonies fought with the Allies. Italian (light green) with the Axis. French colonies (dark blue) fought with the Allies until the Fall of France after which some supported Vichy and some the Free French. Portuguese (dark green) and Spanish (yellow) colonies remained neutral.

Africa was a large continent whose geography gave it strategic importance during the war. North Africa was the scene of

British Commonwealth of Nations, and had been an independent self-governing country since 1931.[30] British colonies in Africa were administered by the Colonial Office, which frequently implemented a policy of indirect rule. France also held extensive possessions in Africa, but they played a much smaller role in the war, since they were largely tied to Vichy France. Portuguese holdings played a minor role. Italian holdings were the target of successful British military campaigns. The Belgian Congo, and two other Belgian colonies, were major exporters. In terms of numbers and wealth, the British controlled the richest portions of Africa, and made extensive use not only of the geography, but the manpower and the natural resources. Civilian colonial officials made a special effort to upgrade the African infrastructure, promote agriculture, integrate colonial Africa with the world economy, and recruit over a half million soldiers.[31][32]

Before the war, Britain had made few plans for the utilization of Africa, but it quickly set up command structures. The Army set up the West Africa Command, which recruited 200,000 soldiers. The East Africa Command was created in September 1941 to support the overstretched Middle East Command. The Southern Command was the domain of South Africa. The Royal Navy set up the South Atlantic Command based in Sierra Leone, that became one of the main convoy assembly points. The RAF Coastal Command had major submarine-hunting operations based in West Africa, while a smaller RAF command Dealt with submarines in the Indian Ocean. Ferrying aircraft from North America and Britain was the major mission of the Western Desert Air Force. In addition smaller more localized commands were set up throughout the war.[33]

Before the war, the military establishments were very small throughout British Africa, and largely consisted of white troops, who comprised only two percent of the population outside Africa. As soon as the war began, a large number of new military units were established in Africa, primarily by the Army. The new recruits were a mixture of volunteers and conscripts, who were raised in close cooperation with local tribal leaders. During the war, military pay scales far exceeded what African civilians could earn, especially when food, housing and clothing allowances are included. The largest numbers were in construction units, called Pioneer Units, consisting of over 82,000 African servicemembers. The RAF and Navy also recruited in Africa during the conflict. East Africa provided the largest number of men, over 320,000, chiefly from Kenya, Tanganyika, and Uganda. They did some fighting, a great deal of guard duty, and construction work. 80,000 served in the Middle East. Special care was taken in dealing with African servicemembers not to challenge or overturn the existing social and racial hierarchies which existed in colonial Africa; nevertheless, the soldiers were drilled and train to European standards, given strong doses of propaganda, and learnt leadership and organizational skills that proved essential to the formation of nationalistic and independence movements after 1945. There were minor episodes of discontent among Africans who fought for the British Empire, though the majority remained loyal.[34] Afrikaner nationalism played a major role in South African opposition to joining the war, but pro-German Prime Minister J. B. M. Hertzog resigned in 1939 and was replaced by Jan Smuts, a fellow Afrikaner who was an enthusiastic supporter of South Africa participating in the conflict. Under Smuts' direction, the Union Defence Force raised 340,000 volunteers (of which 190,000 were white, about one-third of all eligible white men in South Africa) to fight in the war.[35]

India

Main articles: India in World War II and Indian Army during World War II
Over 2.5 million Indians enlisted in the largest volunteer army in history[36]

The Viceroy Linlithgow declared that India was at war with Germany with no consultations with Indian politicians.[37]

Serious tension erupted over American support for independence for India, a proposition Churchill vehemently rejected.[38][39] For years Roosevelt had encouraged Britain's disengagement from India. The American position was based on principled opposition to colonialism.[40] The politically active Indian population was deeply divided.[41] One element was so insistent on the expulsion of the British, that it sided with Germany and Japan, and formed the Indian National Army (INA) from Indian prisoners of war. It fought as part of the Japanese invasion of Burma and eastern India. There was a large pacifist element, which rallied to Gandhi's call for abstention from the war; he said that violence in every form was evil.[42] There was a high level of religious tension between the Hindu majority and the Muslims minority. For the first time the Muslim community became politically active, giving strong support for the British war effort. Over 2 million Indians volunteered for military service, including a large Muslim contingent. The British were sensitive to demands of the Muslim League, led by Muhammad Ali Jinnah, since it needed Muslim soldiers in India and Muslim support all across the Middle East. London used the religious tensions in India as a justification to continue its rule, saying it was needed to prevent religious massacres of the sort that did happen in 1947. The imperialist element in Britain was strongly represented in the Conservative party; Churchill himself had long been its leading spokesman. On the other hand, Attlee and the Labour Party favoured independence and had close ties to the Congress Party. The British cabinet sent Sir Stafford Cripps to India with a specific peace plan offering India the promise of dominion status after the war. Congress demanded independence immediately and the Cripps mission failed. Roosevelt gave support to Congress, sending his representative Louis Johnson to help negotiate some sort of independence. Churchill was outraged, refused to cooperate with Roosevelt on the issue, and threatened to resign as prime minister if Roosevelt pushed too hard. Roosevelt pulled back.[43] In 1942 when the Congress Party launched a Quit India Movement of non-violent civil disobedience, the Raj police immediately arrested tens of thousands of activists (including Gandhi), holding them for the duration. Meanwhile, wartime disruptions caused severe food shortages in eastern India; hundreds of thousands died of starvation. To this day a large Indian element blames Churchill for the Bengal famine of 1943.[44] In terms of the war effort, India became a major base for American supplies sent to China, and Lend Lease operations boosted the local economy. The 2 million Indian soldiers were a major factor in British success in the Middle East. Muslim support for the British war effort proved decisive in the British decision to partition India, forming of the new state of Pakistan.[45]

Victory

Main articles: Victory in Europe Day and Victory over Japan Day
The front page of The Montreal Daily Star announcing the German surrender. 7 May 1945

On 8 May 1945, the

Channel Islands was not until 9 May 1945. On 30 April Hitler committed suicide during the Battle of Berlin, and so the surrender of Germany was authorized by his replacement, President of Germany Karl Dönitz. The act of military surrender was signed on 7 May in Reims, France, and ratified on 8 May in Berlin
, Germany.

In the afternoon of 15 August 1945, the Surrender of Japan occurred, effectively ending World War II. On this day the initial announcement of Japan's surrender was made in Japan, and because of time zone differences it was announced in the United States, Western Europe, the Americas, the Pacific Islands, and Australia/New Zealand on 14 August 1945. The signing of the surrender document occurred on 2 September 1945.

Aftermath

By the end of the war in August 1945, British Commonwealth forces were responsible for the civil and/or military administration of a number of non-Commonwealth territories, occupied during the war, including Eritrea, Libya, Madagascar, Iran, Iraq, Lebanon, Italian Somaliland, Syria, Thailand and portions of Germany, Austria and Japan. Most of these military administrations were handed over to old European colonial authorities or to new local authorities soon after the end of the hostilities. Commonwealth forces administered occupation zones in Japan, Germany and Austria until 1955. World War II confirmed that Britain was no longer the great power it had once been, and that it had been surpassed by the United States and Soviet Union on the world stage. Canada, Australia and New Zealand moved within the orbit of the United States. The image of imperial strength in Asia had been shattered by the Japanese attacks, and British prestige there was irreversibly damaged.[46] The price for India's entry to the war had been effectively a guarantee for independence, which came within two years of the end of the war, relieving Britain of its most populous and valuable colony. The deployment of 150,000 Africans overseas from British colonies, and the stationing of white troops in Africa itself led to revised perceptions of the Empire in Africa.[47]

Historiography

In terms of actual engagement with the enemy, historians have recounted a great deal in South Asia and Southeast Asia, as summarized by Ashley Jackson:

Terror, mass migration, shortages, inflation, blackouts, air raids, massacres, famine, forced labour, urbanization, environmental damage, occupation [by the enemy], resistance, collaboration – all of these dramatic and often horrific phenomena shaped the war experience of Britain's imperial subjects.[48]

British historians of the Second World War have not emphasized the critical role played by the Empire in terms of money, manpower and imports of food and raw materials.[49] [50] The powerful combination meant that Britain did not stand alone against Germany, it stood at the head of a great but fading empire. As Ashley Jackson has argued," The story of the British Empire's war, therefore, is one of Imperial success in contributing toward Allied victory on the one hand, and egregious Imperial failure on the other, as Britain struggled to protect people and defeat them, and failed to win the loyalty of colonial subjects."[51] The contribution in terms of soldiers numbered 2.5 million men from India, over 1 million from Canada, just under 1 million from Australia, 410,000 from South Africa, and 215,000 from New Zealand. In addition, the colonies mobilized over 500,000 uniformed personnel who serve primarily inside Africa.[52] In terms of financing, the British war budget included £2.7 billion borrowed from the Empire's Sterling Area, And eventually paid back. Canada made C$3 billion in gifts and loans on easy terms.[53]

Military histories of the British Empire's colonies, dominions, mandates and protectorates

The contributions from individual colonies, dominions, mandates, and protectorates to the war effort were extensive and global. Further information about their involvement can be found in the military histories of the individual colonies, dominions, mandates, and protectorates listed below.

Africa

Americas

East Asia

Europe

Middle East

Oceania

South Asia

Southeast Asia

See also

Homefront

Major military formations and units

Notes

  1. ^ Ireland was technically a dominion but operated largely as an independent republic and remained neutral during the war. Newfoundland, though still called a "Dominion", had ceased self-governing functions and was governed as a colony.

References

  1. ^ The term "British Commonwealth of Nations", popularised during World War I, became official after the Balfour Declaration in 1926. The Statute of Westminster, passed in 1931, gave legal status to the independence of Australia, Canada, the Irish Free State, Newfoundland, New Zealand and South Africa. [1] Archived 14 December 2020 at the Wayback Machine After the Statute of Westminster was passed in 1931, the Dominions were "as independent as they wished to be". [2] W. David McIntyre, 1999, "The Commonwealth"; in Robin Winks (ed.), The Oxford History of the British Empire: Volume V: Historiography, Oxford University Press, p. 558-560.
  2. ^ Stephen Leacock, Our British empire; its structure, its history, its strength (1941) pp. 266–75. online free to borrow
  3. ^ Ashley7 Jackson, The British Empire and the Second World War (2006).
  4. ^ Stacey, C P. (1970)
  5. ^ Edgerton, David (2011)
  6. ^ Compare: Madgwick, Peter James; Steeds, David; Williams, L. J. (1982). Britain Since 1945 (reprint ed.). Hutchinson. p. 283.
    ISBN 9780091473716
    . Retrieved 5 October 2020. The nationalist movements used the political principles of European democracy - self-determination, one man one vote - against European colonialism. Their cause was greatly assisted by the humiliating defeats to which Britain and the other colonial powers were subjected in the Second World War.
  7. ^ Compare: Lee, Loyd E., ed. (1997). World War II in Europe, Africa, and the Americas, with General Sources: A Handbook of Literature and Research. Gale virtual reference library. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 468.
    ISBN 9780313293252
    . Retrieved 5 October 2020. [...] the war brought forth a new generation of African politicians who refused to accept the pace of political change laid down by the colonial governments. [...] politicians in British West Africa agitated for self-government [...]. [...] There is a paucity of material about how the Second World War facilitated the decolonization process in individual countries. However, some work has been done on Ghana, Nigeria, Kenya, Uganda, and Zambia.
  8. ^ Louis, p. 315
  9. ^ Brown, p. 284
  10. ^ Stewart, Robert B. (July 1938). "Treaty-Making Procedure in the British Dominions". American Journal of International Law. Cambridge University Press. 32 (3): 467–487. Note: from 1937-1949, Ireland's status with regards to the British Empire is hard to define. Though the 1937 amendments abolished the post of Governor General and removed The Crown entirely from having any role in the State's internal governance, certain posts related to foreign policy, such as Irish diplomats continued to receive their accreditation from the monarch and Irish citizens legally remained royal subjects. This confusion was settled after Ireland formally became a recognized Republic in 1949.
  11. ^ Brown, pp. 307–9
  12. ^ McKernan (1983). p. 4.
  13. ^ Stephens (2006). pp. 76–79.
  14. ISBN 978-0-88850-145-5
    .
  15. ^ Hague, 2000
  16. ^ Byers, p.26
  17. ^ Stacey 1970
  18. ^ McIntyre pp. 336–7
  19. ^ Grey (2008). pp. 156–164.
  20. ^ Brown, p. 310
  21. ^ Jackson, p 241.
  22. ^ See "Pounds Sterling to Dollars: Historical Conversion of Currency"
  23. ^ Marcelo de Paiva Abreu, "India as a creditor: sterling balances, 1940–1953." (Department of Economics, Pontifical Catholic University of Rio de Janeiro, 2015) online
  24. ^ Louis, p. 335
  25. ^ McIntyre p. 339
  26. ^ Brown, p. 317
  27. ^ McIntyre p. 337
  28. ISBN 0-14-101036-3.[page needed
    ]
  29. ISBN 0395410584
  30. ^ The term "Commonwealth" was popularised during World War I and became official after the Balfour Declaration in 1926. The Statute of Westminster 1931 gave legal status to the independence of Australia, Canada, Irish Free State, Newfoundland, New Zealand and South Africa. [3] Archived 14 December 2020 at the Wayback Machine After the Statute of Westminster was passed in 1931, the Dominions were "as independent as they wished to be". W. David McIntyre, 1999, "The Commonwealth"; in Robin Winks (ed.), The Oxford History of the British Empire: Volume V: Historiography, Oxford University Press, p. 558-560.
  31. ^ Ashley Jackson, The British Empire and the Second World War (2006) 171–239.
  32. ^ David Killingray and Richard Rathbone, edfs. Africa and the Second World War (1986).
  33. ^ Jackson, The British Empire and the Second World War (2006) 175-77.
  34. ^ Jackson, The British Empire and the Second World War (2006) pp 180–189.
  35. ^ Jackson, The British Empire and the Second World War (2006) pp 240–45.
  36. ^ "Commonwealth War Graves Commission Report on India 2007–2008" (PDF). Commonwealth War Graves Commission. Archived from the original (PDF) on 18 June 2010. Retrieved 7 September 2009.
  37. JSTOR 44142017
    . Retrieved 2 November 2020.
  38. ^ William Roger Louis, Imperialism at Bay: The United States and the Decolonization of the British Empire, 1941–1945 (1978).
  39. ^ Andrew N. Buchanan, "The War Crisis and the Decolonization of India, December 1941 – September 1942: A Political and Military Dilemma." Global War Studies 8#2 (2011): 5–31.
  40. ^ Kenton J. Clymer, "Franklin D. Roosevelt, Louis Johnson, India, and Anticolonialism: Another Look." Pacific Historical Review 57#3 (1988): 261–284. online
  41. ^ Yasmin Khan, The Raj at War: A People's History of India's Second World War (2016)
  42. ISBN 9780553804638
    .
  43. ISBN 0691037302
    .
  44. ^ John Hickman, "Orwellian Rectification: Popular Churchill Biographies and the 1943 Bengal Famine." Studies in History 24#2 (2008): 235–243.
  45. ^ Eric S. Rubin, "America, Britain, and Swaraj: Anglo-American Relations and Indian Independence, 1939–1945," India Review" (Jan–March 2011) 10#1 pp 40–80
  46. ^ McIntyre, p. 341
  47. ^ McIntyre, p. 342
  48. ISBN 9781316298565
    .
  49. ^ for survey see Ashley Jackson, "The British Empire and the Second World War" online
  50. ^ For comprehensive coverage and up-to-date bibliography see "The British Empire at War Research Group"
  51. ^ Ashley Jackson, "The British Empire, 1939–1945 " in Richard J. B. Bosworth and Joseph A. Maiolo, eds., The Cambridge History of the Second World War: Volume II Politics and Ideology (2015) pp 558–580, quote on p 559.
  52. ^ Jackson, p 563.
  53. ISBN 9781316298800
    .

Bibliography

Further reading

British Army

Royal Navy

Royal Air Force

  • Bungay, Stephen. The Most Dangerous Enemy: The Definitive History of the Battle of Britain (2nd ed. 2010)
  • Collier, Basil. Defence of the United Kingdom (HMSO, 1957) online
  • Fisher, David E, A Summer Bright and Terrible: Winston Churchill, Lord Dowding, Radar, and the Impossible Triumph of the Battle of Britain (2005) excerpt online
  • Hastings, Max. Bomber Command (1979)
  • Hansen, Randall. Fire and Fury: The Allied Bombing of Germany, 1942–1945 (2009)
  • Hough, Richard and Denis Richards. The Battle of Britain (1989) 480 pp
  • Messenger, Charles, "Bomber" Harris and the Strategic Bombing Offensive, 1939–1945 (1984), defends Harris
  • Overy, Richard. The Battle of Britain: The Myth and the Reality (2001) 192 pages excerpt and text search
  • Richards, Dennis, et al. Royal Air Force, 1939–1945: The Fight at Odds – Vol. 1 (HMSO 1953), official history vol 1 online edition vol 2 online edition; vol 3 online edition
  • Shores, Christopher F. Air War for Burma: The Allied Air Forces Fight Back in South-East Asia 1942–1945 (2005)
  • Terraine, John. A Time for Courage: The Royal Air Force in the European War, 1939–1945 (1985)
  • Verrier, Anthony. The Bomber Offensive (1969), British
  • Walker, David. "Supreme air command-the development of royal air force command practice in the second world war." (PhD dissertation, . University of Birmingham, 2018.) online
  • Webster, Charles and Noble Frankland, The Strategic Air Offensive Against Germany, 1939–1945 (HMSO, 1961), 4 vol. Important official British history
  • Wood, Derek, and Derek D. Dempster. The Narrow Margin: The Battle of Britain and the Rise of Air Power 1930–40 (1975) online edition

Homefronts

  • Mosby, Ian. Food Will Win the War: The Politics, Culture, and Science of Food on Canada's Home Front (2014)
  • Ollerenshaw, Philip. Northern Ireland in the Second World War: Politics, economic mobilisation and society, 1939–45 (2016). online

Historiography and memory

External links

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