Islam in the United Kingdom

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Islam in the United Kingdom
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    Islam is the second-largest religion in the United Kingdom, with results from the 2011 Census giving the population as 4.4% of the total UK population,[4] while results from the 2021 Census recorded a population of 6.5% in England and Wales.[5][6] London has the greatest population of Muslims in the country.[7][8][9] The vast majority of Muslims in the United Kingdom adhere to Sunni Islam,[10] while smaller numbers are associated with Shia Islam.

    During the

    Qur'an
    by a British Muslim in 1930.

    Under the

    Somali communities, as well as up to 100,000 British converts of multiple ethnic backgrounds.[13] Islam is the second largest religion in the United Kingdom and its adherents have the lowest average age out of all the major religious groups.[14] Between 2001 and 2009, the Muslim population increased almost 10 times faster than the non-Muslim population.[15]

    History

    Early history

    Main articles:
    List of Arabic loanwords in English and Islam in England

    Although Islam is generally thought of as a recent arrival in the UK, Muslims have been trading and exchanging ideas with the British for centuries.

    A mancus/gold dinar of king Offa, copied from the dinars of the Abbasid Caliphate (774); it includes the Arabic text "Muhammad is the Apostle of Allah", a line from the Shahada.

    The earliest evidence of Islamic influence in England dates to the 8th century, when

    Caliph Al-Mansur.[16] In the 16th century, Muslims from North Africa, the Middle East and Central Asia were present in London, working in a range of roles, from diplomats and translators to merchants and musicians.[17]

    Interactions under British Empire

    Main articles: Company rule in India and British Raj
    Bengali Muslim diplomat I'tisam-ud-Din was the first educated South Asian to have travelled to the United Kingdom in 1765.
    Punjabi Muslims of the 33rd Punjabis, British Indian Army.

    Persian book, Shigurf-nama-i-Wilayat (or 'Wonder Book of Europe').[26]

    In South Asia, specifically, the British ruled over one of the largest Muslim populations in the world.[citation needed] Upon coming into contact with such a population, the British authorities forged a uniquely Muslim identity for the local believers. This was, in part, due to the way British historians periodized South Asian history into an "ancient" Hindu one and a "medieval" Muslim one. Under the system, the colonial period was classified as "modern".[27] Debate rages on concerning the utility and legitimacy of these labels themselves. Problems with these labels range from the connotations coupled with the word 'medieval' to the implications related to labelling the colonial era as "modern". The term medieval itself is quite controversial. Historians writing in journals relating to the time period have asked whether the term is a "tyrannous construct" or an "alien conceptual hegemony".[27] This is because the label was originally developed during the study of European history to mark the period in between the fall of the Roman Empire and the fall of Constantinople.[citation needed]

    Such classifications done by British historians throughout their long period of rule paved the way for a more cohesive Muslim identity. In the eighteenth century, this seemed unlikely. Muslims who hailed from Afghan, Turk, Persian, or Arab roots did not find their Muslim identities especially salient. Mughal courts divided not into Hindu or Muslim factions but Persian and Turkish ones. Converts to the religion outside of courtly life, the majority of the Muslim population in the Subcontinent, too were more focused on their regional and lingual cultural identities-whether that be Bengali, Punjabi, Sindhi, or Gujarati.[28]

    The first group of Muslims to come to Great Britain in significant numbers, in the 18th century, were

    Hindoostanee Coffee House.[30]

    Between 1803 and 1813, there were more than 10,000 lascars from the Indian subcontinent visiting British port cities and towns.

    Bengali descent.[35] In 1932, the Indian National Congress
    survey of 'all Indians outside India' (which included modern Pakistani and Bangladeshi territories) estimated that there were 7,128 Indians living in the United Kingdom.

    By 1911, the British Empire had a Muslim population of 94 million, larger than the empire's 58 million Christian population.

    Gandhi in 1920.[22] Winston Churchill also stated in 1942: "We must not on any account break with the Moslems, who represent a hundred million people, and the main army elements on which we must rely for the immediate fighting."[38]

    Marmaduke Pickthall authored an English language translation of the Qur'an in 1930.

    The Shah Jahan Mosque in Woking was the first purpose-built mosque in Britain, and was built in 1889. In the same year, Abdullah Quilliam installed a mosque in a terrace in Liverpool, which became the Liverpool Muslim Institute.[40][41] The first mosque in London was the Fazl Mosque, established in 1924, commonly called the London mosque.

    Quran translators Yusuf Ali and Marmaduke Pickthall, who authored The Meaning of the Glorious Koran: An Explanatory Translation in 1930, were both trustees of the Shah Jehan Mosque in Woking and the East London Mosque.[42][43]

    Other aristocratic British converts included Sir Archibald Hamilton, 5th Baronet, Rowland Allanson-Winn, 5th Baron Headley, St John Philby and Zainab Cobbold (the first Muslim woman born in Britain to perform the pilgrimage to Mecca).

    Immigration and post-World War II

    Muslims during an Eid al-Fitr feast at the East London Mosque in 1941

    Large-scale immigration of Muslims to Britain began after World War II, as a result of the destruction and labour shortages caused by the war.[44][45] Muslim migrants from former British colonies, predominantly India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh,[44] were recruited in large numbers by government and businesses to rebuild the country.[46] Large numbers of doctors recruited from India and Pakistan, encouraged by health minister Enoch Powell in the early 1960s, also played a key role in the establishment of the National Health Service.[47]

    British Bangladeshi activists began a number of anti-racist Asian youth movements in the 1970s and 1980s, including the Bradford Youth Movement in 1977, the Bangladeshi Youth Movement following the murder of Altab Ali in 1978, and the Newham Youth Movement following the murder of Akhtar Ali Baig in 1980.[49]

    The majority of mosques founded after World War II in Britain are reflective of the major strands of Sunni Islam predominating in the Indian subcontinent; namely

    Qadiri tariqa which was run out of Achnagairn in the Scottish Highlands
    .

    major controversy. A number of Muslims in Britain condemned the book for blasphemy. On 2 December 1988, the book was publicly burned at a demonstration in Bolton attended by 7,000 Muslims, followed by a similar demonstration and book-burning in Bradford on 14 January 1989.[50]

    Recently, several wars in the Balkans, Middle East and North Africa have led to many Muslims migrating to the United Kingdom. In 1992, with the outbreak of the Bosnian War, a large number of Bosniaks who fled the ethnic cleansing and genocide ended up settling in Britain. Their numbers currently exist at between 10,000 and 15,000 including their descendants.[51] Just over three years later, an insurgency in Kosovo beginning in 1995, eventually evolving into the Kosovo War in 1998, would see 29,000 Kosovo Albanians flee their homes and settle in Britain. It is commonly believed that many Albanians from Albania moved to the United Kingdom at this time, posing as refugees from Kosovo, in search of a better life in the UK.[52]

    A mere decade later, the Arab Spring (and later Arab Winter) brought a wave of Muslim refugees fleeing civil war in Syria, war in Iraq, two wars in Libya, war in Yemen and countless other insurgencies by political groups and other terrorist organisations which exerted control over vast swathes of territory in the Middle East.[53] Britain took on 20,000 refugees from Syria[54] and 11,647 from Iraq.[55]

    The growing number of Muslims resulted in the establishment of more than 1,500 mosques by 2007.[56]

    Demographics

    The Muslim population of England and Wales has grown consistently since World War II. Sophie Gilliat-Ray attributes the recent growth to "recent immigration, the higher than average birth rate, some conversion to Islam".[57]

    According to the 2021 United Kingdom census, Muslims in England and Wales numbered 3,868,133, or 6.5% of the population.[58]

    Census Year Number of Muslims Population of England and Wales Muslim (% of population) Registered mosques Muslims per mosque
    1961 50,000 46,196,000 0.11[59] 7 7,143
    1971 226,000 49,152,000 0.46[59] 30 7,533
    1981 553,000 49,634,000 1.11[59] 149 3,711
    1991 950,000 51,099,000 1.86[59] 443 2,144
    2001 1,600,000 52,042,000 3.07[59] 614 2,606
    2011 2,706,000 56,076,000 4.83[60] 1,500 1,912
    2021 3,868,133 59,597,542 6.5[58] – –
    Muslim population of England and Wales
    YearPop.±%
    1961 50,000[59]—    
    1971 226,000[59]+352.0%
    1981 553,000[59]+144.7%
    1991 950,000[59]+71.8%
    2001 1,600,000[59]+68.4%
    2011 2,706,066[60]+69.1%
    2021 3,868,133[61]+42.9%
    Muslim population in English local authority areas, 2011
      0.0%–0.9%
      1%–1.9%
      2%–4.9%
      5%–9.9%
      10%–19.9%
      20% and more

    According to a 2017 projection the Muslim population in the UK in the year 2050 is likely to number around 13 million.[62]

    Ethnic composition of British Muslims (2011 census)[60]
    Muslim population pyramid in 2021 in England and Wales

    The top 20 local authorities in England and Wales with the highest percentage of Muslims in 2021[63][64] were:

    London Central Mosque interior

    Several large cities have one area that is a majority Muslim even if the rest of the city has a fairly small Muslim population. In addition, it is possible to find small areas that are almost entirely Muslim: for example, Savile Town in Dewsbury.[65]

    Initial limited mosque availability meant that prayers were conducted in small rooms of

    ethnic group.[68]

    The 2001 census recorded that there were 179,733 Muslims who described themselves as 'white'.[

    East Macedonia and Thrace in Northern Greece, and North Macedonia.[original research?] The remainder of white Muslims are converts and mostly identified themselves as White British and White Irish.[citation needed
    ]

    Islam is the third-largest religious group of British Indian people, after Hinduism and Sikhism.[69] 8% of UK Muslims are of Indian descent,[citation needed] principally those whose origins are in Gujarat, West Bengal, Telangana and Kerala. Gujarati Muslims from the Surat and Bharuch districts started to arrive from the 1940s when India was under British colonial rule, settling in the towns of Dewsbury and Batley in Yorkshire and in parts of Lancashire.

    South Asian

    Pakistanis

    See also: British Pakistanis

    The single largest group of Muslims in the United Kingdom are of

    Nowshera and Peshawar. There is also a fairly large Punjabi community from East Africa found in London. People of Pakistani extraction are particularly notable in West Midlands, West Yorkshire, London, Lancashire/Greater Manchester and several industrial towns such as Luton, Slough and High Wycombe in the Home Counties. There are smaller numbers of Sindhis in Greater London
    . Pakistanis were traditionally working class but are slowly progressing into a Metropolitan middle class; they continue to face social integration issues.

    Bangladeshis

    See also: British Bangladeshis
    The East London Mosque was one of the first in Britain to be allowed to use loudspeakers to broadcast the adhan.[70]

    People of

    Muslim.[71] The majority of these Muslims come from the Sylhet Division of Bangladesh. Many mosques opened by the British Bangladeshi community are often named after Shah Jalal and other Sufi saints who took part in the Islamic conquest of Sylhet in 1303. British Bangladeshi Muslims are mainly concentrated in London (Tower Hamlets and Newham), Luton, Birmingham and Oldham. The Bangladeshi Muslim community in London forms 24% of the Muslim population, larger than any other ethnic group.[72] Other smaller Bangladeshi Muslim communities are present in Newcastle upon Tyne, Bradford, Manchester, Sunderland, Portsmouth, and Rochdale
    .

    There are groups which are active throughout Bangladeshi communities such as The Young Muslim Organisation. It is connected to the

    Brick Lane Masjid
    , as well as opening madrassas and Islamic TV channels.

    Indians

    There are large numbers of Gujarati Muslims in

    Waltham Forest and Hackney).[citation needed
    ]

    Middle Eastern

    Kurds

    See also:
    British Kurds

    The UK has a significant Iraqi Kurdish population. Iraqi Kurds are mostly Sunni Muslims.[80][81]

    According to the

    Department for Communities and Local Government, the Iraqi Kurds make up the largest group of Kurds in the country, exceeding the numbers from Turkey and Iran.[82]

    Arabs

    See also: British Arabs

    People of Arab origin in Britain are the descendants of Arab immigrants to Britain from a variety of Arab states, including Yemen, Syria, Iraq, Lebanon, Jordan, Egypt and Palestine. Most British Arabs are Sunni Muslim, although some – such as those of Iraqi and Lebanese origin – are Shi'ite. The main Arab Muslim communities in the UK live in the Greater London area, with smaller numbers living in Manchester, Liverpool, and Birmingham. There are also sizable and very long-established communities of Muslim Yemenis in the United Kingdom in among other places Cardiff and the South Shields area near Newcastle.

    The

    2001 UK Census recorded 32,236 Iraqi-born residents,[83] and the Office for National Statistics estimates that, as of 2009, this figure had risen to around 65,000.[84] According to estimates by the Iraqi embassy, the Iraqi population in the UK is around 350,000–450,000.[85]

    Turks

    See also: British Turks
    A Turkish girl in London.

    Home Affairs Committee in 2011 claimed that there was 500,000 British Turks,[87] made up of approximately 150,000 Turkish nationals, 300,000 Turkish Cypriots, and the remainder from other countries.[89] As of 2013, there was a growing number of ethnic Turks from the modern diaspora in Western Europe; for example, Turks with German and Dutch citizenship (i.e. Turkish Germans and Turkish Dutch) had also immigrated to Britain in accordance with the freedom of movement under EU law.[90]

    Suleymaniye Mosque in Hoxton, London.

    Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus in 1983) an economic embargo against the Turkish Cypriots by the Greek Cypriot controlled Republic of Cyprus, caused a further 130,000 Turkish Cypriots to leave the Island for the United Kingdom.[95][96]

    Migrant workers from the

    Republic of Turkey began to arrive in large numbers in the 1970s, followed by their family members in the late 1970s and 1980s.[97] Many of these workers were recruited by Turkish Cypriots who had already established businesses such as restaurants.[98] These workers were required to renew their work permits every year until they became residents after living in the country for five years.[97] By the 1980s, intellectuals, including students, and highly educated professionals arrived in the country, most of which received support from the Turkish Cypriot community.[99] Mainland Turks settled in similar areas of London in which the Turkish Cypriots lived in; however, many have also moved to the outer districts, such as Essex.[97]

    Aziziye Mosque in Stoke Newington, London.

    The Turkish community have established several mosques in the country. The first was Shacklewell Lane Mosque, established by the Turkish Cypriot community in 1977.[100] There are numerous other Turkish mosques in London, mainly in Hackney, including the Aziziye Mosque[101] and Suleymaniye Mosque.[102] Notable Turkish mosques outside London include Selimiye Mosque in Manchester, Hamidiye Mosque in Leicester, and Osmaniye Mosque in Stoke-on-Trent.[103]

    Turks from the same districts from their homeland tend to congregate in the same quarters in the UK.

    Waltham Forest, and Wood Green.[105][106] Outside London there are smaller Turkish communities in Birmingham, Hertfordshire, Luton, Manchester, Sheffield and the East Midlands
    .

    African

    Maghrebis

    Main article: Maghreb

    Although data is short, findings indicate Maghrebis make up a substantial community in Europe and the United Kingdom. Britain has long ties with Maghrebis, through contact with the Maghrebis. Nevertheless, Britain has a far lower count of Maghrebis in comparison to France, the Netherlands and Spain, where the majority of Muslims are Maghrebi.[107]

    Nigerians

    See also: British Nigerians

    A 2009 government paper estimated the Nigerian Muslim community at 12,000 to 14,000 people.[108] The community is concentrated in London.

    Nigerian Muslims in the UK are represented by several community organizations including the Nigeria Muslim Forum.[109]

    Somalis

    See also:
    British Somalis
    Somali women at a Somali community gathering event in London

    The United Kingdom, with 43,532 Somalia-born residents in 2001,[110] and an estimated 101,000 in 2008,[111] is home to the largest Somali community in Europe. A 2009 estimate by Somali community organisations puts the Somali population figure at 90,000 residents.[112] The first Somali immigrants were seamen and traders who arrived in small numbers in port cities in the late 19th century, although most Somalis in the UK are recent arrivals. Further more Somali European such as from Holland or Denmark have been emigrating in recent years.[112] Established Somali communities are found in Bristol, Cardiff, Liverpool and London, and newer ones have formed in Leicester, Manchester and Sheffield.[113][114][115][116]

    White European

    The history of native British Muslims has a long presence in the country. The earliest known Englishman to convert to Islam was John Nelson of the 16th century. Thomas Keith was a Scottish soldier who converted to Islam and became the governor of Medina.[117] Abdullah Quilliam was a 19th-century Englishman who converted to Islam and built what is argued to be the first mosque in the country in Liverpool. He was known locally for his work advocating trade unionism and divorce law reform and persuaded more people in Liverpool to convert but they faced abuse from the wider society.[118]

    Branches

    See also: Islamic schools and branches
    Demographics of British Muslims (JPR), 2017[119]
    Non-denominational Sunni
     
    		 51.1%
    Other Sunni
     
    		 14.1%
    Shia
     
    		 5.0%
    Barelvi
     
    		 4.5%
    Salafi
     
    		 3.8%
    Deobandi
     
    		 3.1%
    Ahmadiyya
     
    		 1.0%
    Other form of Islam
     
    		 19.0%

    An August 2017 survey by the Bertelsmann Stiftung foundation found that among British Muslims, 75% were Sunni and 8% were Shia.[120] A September 2017 survey by the Institute for Jewish Policy Research found that among British Muslims, 77% were Sunni, 5% were Shia, 1% were Ahmadiyya, and 4% were members of other denominations. 14% of British Muslims said they did not know or refused to answer the survey.[121]

    The denominational or theme breakdown of mosques and prayer rooms in the UK in 2017 with a sum total of more than 5% were as follows: 41.2% Deobandi, 23.7% Barelvi, 9.4% Salafi, and 5.9% Shia (Twelver, Bohra, Ismaili). 7.4% were non-denominational prayer rooms.[122]

    Sunni

    In 2015,

    Sunnis in the UK.[123]

    Among British Sunnis in 2017, 66.7% were just non-denominational Sunni, 5.9% were Barelvi, 5.0% were Salafis, 4.1% were Deobandi, and 18.3% adhered to another Sunni Islam denomination.[124]

    The majority of British mosques are

    Arab, Turkish and Somali managed entities.[125]

    Shia

    In 2015, The Economist stated that were 400,000 Shias in the UK.[123]

    Shia mosques are usually

    Ismaili community;[126] they usually include facilities for women. Various Shia mosques include the Husseini Islamic Centre in Stanmore, Harrow which acts as one of the main Shia Muslim mosques in Britain as well as Masjid-e-Ali in Luton, one of the largest Imam Bargah/community centres in the UK, and the Islamic Centre of England
    in Maida Vale, also a large multi-ethnic community centre. Others include Al Masjid ul Husseini in Northolt, Ealing, and Imam Khoei Islamic Centre in Queens Park, Brent. Across the country Manchester, Birmingham and London have the most Shia residents.

    Ahmadiyyat

    Main article: Ahmadiyya in the United Kingdom

    The

    (Masjid Mubarak), inaugurated on 17 May 2019 by Mirza Masroor Ahmad, the fifth caliph of the Ahmadiyya movement,[127] in Tilford, Surrey. The AMC also has the largest Muslim youth organisation, the Ahmadiyya Muslim Youth Association (Majlis Khuddamul Ahmadiyya) in the UK (membership of 7,500) and the largest Muslim women's organisation, the Ahmadiyya Muslim Women's Association (Lajna Ima'illah), in the UK (membership of 10,000).[128]

    Sectarian relations

    There has also been discrimination by orthodox Sunni Muslims against

    Tell MAMA responded by identifying attempts to intimidate or discriminate against Ahmadiyya Muslims "as anti-Muslim in nature".[131]

    Society

    Economics

    In a 2010 aggregate study published by the Government Equalities Office, Muslims in the United Kingdom had the lowest median hourly salary and held the least wealth amongst religious groups. They also held the lowest employment rates amongst religious groups, at 24% for Muslim women and 47% for Muslim men. The study noted that Muslim women who worked earned more than Muslim men and that Muslim men were more likely to be in self employment compared to the general population of men. Muslim men also had the smallest proportion with degrees, at 18%. More than two-fifths of Muslim men and women have no qualification beyond level 1 (equivalent to grades D-G at GCSE).[132] According to analysis based on the 2011 census, Muslims in the United Kingdom faced poor standards of housing and were more vulnerable to long-term illness.[133]

    According to a 2013 assessment from the Muslim Council of Britain, it was estimated that there were more than 10,000 Muslim millionaires and 13,400 Muslim-owned businesses in London, creating more than 70,000 jobs and representing just over 33 per cent of Small to Medium Enterprises in London.[134]

    Amongst the economically active population in England and Wales, 19.8% of the Muslim population were in full-time employment compared to 34.9% of the overall population.[135] Data from the ONS for England and Wales in 2020 indicated that across religious groups, Muslims continue to hold the lowest earnings, lowest rates of employment, highest rates of economic inactivity, least likely to work in high-skilled occupations, least likely to hold managerial positions, and most likely to report holding no qualifications. However, there had been progress in these metrics.[136] The 2021 United Kingdom census for England and Wales found that the Muslim population had consistently lower rates of employment across every age group compared to the general population. Between the ages of 25–54, the employment rate for Muslims was typically 60% compared to around 80% across the whole population. Overall, 48.6% of working aged British Muslims were in employment, with the employment rate of Muslim women improving to 37%. Muslim women were 3.5 times more likely to report economic inactivity due to looking after family or home compared to the general population of women.[137]

    Education

    In 2018, 34 per cent of British Muslims had degree level qualifications, compared to 30 per cent of Christians and 35 per cent of those with no religion. 13 per cent of Muslims had no qualifications, higher than every other religious group.[138]

    In 2006, it was found that approximately 53% of British Muslim youth chose to attend university.[139] This was higher than the figure for Christians (45%) and the non-religious (32%) but lower than for Hindus (77%) and Sikhs (63%).[139]

    There are around 184 Muslim

    Roman Catholic schools and 64.5% of secular schools.[141]

    In 2019, four Islamic schools were in the top ten ranking for secondary schools in England, including

    Tauheedul Islam Girls High School in first place.[142]

    In 2018, the Crown Prosecution Service brought its first prosecution in England & Wales against an unregistered school, the Islamic faith school Al-Istiqamah Learning Centre in Southall, London where nearly 60 children aged 5–11 were being taught.[143][144][145] Head teacher Beatrix Bernhardt and director Nacerdine Talbi were convicted as running a school not registered with the Department for Education violates the Education and Skills Act 2008. They received fines and a curfew.[146]

    Politics

    Sajid Javid, the former Chancellor of the Exchequer
    Sadiq Khan, the current Mayor of London
    Humza Yousaf, the current First Minister of Scotland
    Anas Sarwar, the current Leader of the Scottish Labour Party
    Pola Uddin, Baroness Uddin was the first Muslim female to sit in the Parliament of the United Kingdom.

    Muslims are playing an increasingly prominent role in political life.[147] Nineteen Muslim MPs were elected in the December 2019 general election,[148] and there are nineteen Muslim peers in the House of Lords.[citation needed]

    The majority of British Muslims vote for the

    2014 Israel-Gaza conflict.[153]

    Muslim political parties in Britain have included the

    Islamist party in Bradford in the 1990s.[155] In 2023, the Electoral Commission rejected an application to set up a new political party named 'Party of Islam'.[156]

    In the 2017 general election, 15 Muslim MPs (12 Labour and 3 Conservative) were elected, up from 13 Muslim MPs in 2015 general election.[157] In the 2019 general election, a record number of 19 Muslim MPs were elected (15 Labour and 4 Conservative).[158][159]

    Survey data analysed by

    British Bangladeshi voters in particular, by a margin of 20–30 points, believed that LGBT rights had gone too far.[160]

    Muslim MPs by election 1997–2019
    Election Labour Conservative Scottish National Party Other Total % of Parliament
    1997[161] 1 0 0 0 1 0.15
    2001[162] 2 0 0 0 2 0.31
    2005[163] 4 0 0 0 4 0.62
    2010[164] 6 2 0 0 8 1.23
    2015[165] 9 3 1 0 13 2.00
    2017[157] 12 3 0 0 15 2.31
    2019[166] 14 5 0 0 19 2.92

    Law

    Main article: Sharia
    Public demonstration in the United Kingdom for sharia, October 2009

    Although sharia is not part of the British legal system, several British establishment figures have supported its use in areas of dispute resolution in Islamic communities. For example, in February 2008 Rowan Williams the Archbishop of Canterbury (the head of the Church of England) lectured at the Royal Courts of Justice on Islam and English law. In this lecture he spoke of the possibility of using sharia in some circumstances:

    [...] it might be possible to think in terms of [...] a scheme in which individuals retain the liberty to choose the jurisdiction under which they will seek to resolve certain carefully specified matters, so that 'power-holders are forced to compete for the loyalty of their shared constituents'.

    — Rowan Williams, 2008[167]

    Several months later,

    Lord Phillips, then Lord Chief Justice of England and Wales supported the idea that sharia could be reasonably employed as a basis for "mediation or other forms of alternative dispute resolution", and explained that "It is not very radical to advocate embracing sharia law in the context of family disputes, for example, and our system already goes a long way towards accommodating the archbishop's suggestion."[168]

    In March 2014,

    The Law Society issued guidance on how to draft sharia-compliant wills for the network of sharia courts which been established to deal with disputes between Muslim families.[169] The guidance was withdrawn later in 2014 following criticism by solicitors and by Chris Grayling, the Justice Secretary.[170]

    In 2016–2018 an independent panel commissioned by the UK government investigated the practices of sharia councils operating in England and Wales. The councils have no legal status and no legal jurisdiction in the UK. Estimates for their number range between 30 and 85. The investigation found that most people consulting the councils are women seeking an Islamic divorce. The review concluded that "there is unanimous agreement among the sharia councils themselves that discriminatory practices do occur in some instances within the councils in England and Wales" and made legislative and administrative recommendations to remedy the abuses. The panel was not aware of any sharia councils operating in Scotland.[171]

    According to Kaveri Qureshi, while women educate themselves and follow Islamic norms and values referring to colonial era Islamic advice literature about marriage not for continuation but to end their marriages and for justification of remarriages contrary to original intention of authors of the literature.[172]

    Media and culture

    See also: List of Islamic television and radio stations in the United Kingdom

    There are several Islamic television channels operating in the UK, including

    Muslim Television Ahmadiyya International (MTA International),[173][174] Ummah Channel,[175] Ahlebait TV, and Fadak
    .

    ITV and formerly Senior Foreign Correspondent with the BBC and a reporter/presenter for Al Jazeera English,[178] and Faisal Islam, economics editor and correspondent for Channel 4 News.[179]

    In 2013, there were 40 Muslim players in the

    Yaya Toure refused the award, champagne was phased out for small trophies instead. Children playing football have been seen falling to their knees as if in prayer after scoring a goal, a common practice of Muslim footballers.[180]

    Associations

    Practice

    Proselytization

    See also: Conversion to Islam in prisons

    It is estimated that 5,200 Britons convert to Islam annually, with a total of about 100,000 converts in 2013. For men, prisons have proven a fertile ground for conversions. About 18% of the

    Chief Inspector of Prisons stated that 30% of the Muslim prisoners interviewed had converted to Islam while in prison, some of whom were "convenience Muslims" who adopted the religion in order to get benefits available only to Muslims.[188] Mosques in the country are sometimes seen as ethnic clubs which are not welcoming of new converts but there have also been recent convert led mosques.[189] A study in 2023 found that amongst some schools, there were tensions between Hindu and Muslims pupils. Hindu students were labelled as "kaffirs" and threatened to either convert or face "hell for disbelievers".[190]

    Extremist ideology

    See also: Terrorism in the United Kingdom § Islamist

    In June 2017, Jeremy Corbyn, leader of the Labour Party, said that difficult conversations are needed, starting with Saudi Arabia and other Gulf states that have funded and fuelled extremist ideology.[191][192] Tom Brake, Liberal Democrat, foreign affairs spokesman has said that Saudi Arabia provides funding to hundreds of mosques in the UK, espousing a very hardline Wahhabist interpretation of Islam.[193]

    The

    secularist policies of France provoked religious violence in France, to which Kepel responded that Britain has no such policies and still suffered several jihadist attacks in 2017 while there were no major attacks in France.[195]

    Some preachers in London's mosques look for Muslim boys who lack clear direction, and set them on the path to radicalisation and terror.[196][additional citation(s) needed]

    According to Gilles de Kerchove in 2017, the UK had the highest number of Islamist radicals in the EU numbering between 20-25,000. Of those, 3000 were considered a direct threat by MI5 and 500 were under constant surveillance.[197] Among those known to security services but not considered an immediate threat were the terrorists of three ISIS-linked attacks in 2017 which killed 35 victims in the UK.[197]

    In July 2017, a report by the Henry Jackson Society, a neo-conservative[198][199] think tank, claimed that Middle Eastern nations are providing financial support to mosques and Islamic educational institutions that have been linked to the spread of extremist material with "an illiberal, bigoted Wahhabi ideology".[200][201] The report said that the number of Salafi and Wahhabi mosques in Britain had increased from 68 in 2007 to 110 in 2014.[202]

    Hardline groups, including

    Hizb-ut-Tahrir, use accusations of Islamophobia to silence legitimate debate about extremism. While they in general are opposed to Western-style human rights, they use human rights to promote an Islamist ideology.[203] The Independent Reviewer for the government's anti-terror programme, Sir William Shawcross, has stated that there was a reluctance to investigate Islamist threats due to fears of being labelled Islamophobic or racist.[204]

    A report published in 2020 found that of the 43,000 extremists on MI5's watchlist, around nine-tenths on the list are Islamist extremists.[205] Islamic terrorism represented 67% of attacks since 2018, 75% of MI5's caseload, and 64% of those in custody for terrorism-connected offences according to the 2023 CONTEST report.[206]

    In March 2024, Communities Secretary Michael Gove announced that five organisations would be assessed against the government's new definition of extremism. Three of these organisations, named as Cage, Muslim Association of Britain, and Muslim Engagement and Development, were of concern due to their Islamist orientation and views.[207] The latter two groups threatened to sue after the announcement.[208]

    Relations with wider society

    Attitudes of British Muslims

    According to the 2006 Pew Global Attitudes Survey, around 81% of Muslims think of themselves as Muslim first. This is consistent with Muslims living in Muslim-majority countries, who also tend to think of themselves as Muslim first rather than identifying with nation states (for example 87% of Pakistanis identify themselves as Muslim first rather than Pakistani).[209] However, around 83% of Muslims are proud to be a British citizen, compared to 79% of the general public, 77% of Muslims strongly identify with Britain while only 50% of the wider population do, 86.4% of Muslims feel they belong in Britain, slightly more than the 85.9% of Christians, 82% of Muslims want to live in diverse and mixed neighbourhoods compared to 63% of non-Muslim Britons.[210] In polls taken across Europe 2006, British Muslims hold the most negative view of westerners out of all Muslims in Europe, whilst overall in Britain 63% of British hold the most favourable view of Muslims out of all the European countries (down from 67% the year before).[211]

    In the wake of the cartoon depiction of Mohammed in Danish newspapers and the 7/7 attacks, a 2006 ICM Research poll found that 97% of British Muslims believed it was wrong to show Muhammad with 86% of respondents feeling personally offended by the depiction.[212] 96% believed it was wrong for Muslims to have bombed London during 7/7, although 20% had sympathy with the feelings and motives of the attackers. 40% of those surveyed also supported the introduction of Sharia law in Muslim-majority areas of Britain.[213] Another poll by GfK revealed that 28% of British Muslims hoped that Britain would one day become an Islamic state, while 52% disagreed, and 20% did not venture an opinion either way.[214]

    On religious issues, a 2007 poll reported that 36% of 16- to 24-year-olds believed if a Muslim converted to another religion they should be punished by death, compared to 19% of 55+ year old Muslims. A poll reported that 59% of Muslims would prefer to live under British law, compared to 28% who would prefer to live under

    Gallup poll in 2009 of 500 British Muslims, none of whom believed that homosexuality was morally acceptable.[218] Such polls suggest that British Muslims have strongly conservative views on issues relating to extra-marital and/or homosexual sexual acts compared with their European Muslim counterparts – who are markedly more liberal.[218]

    A survey by

    Gallup in 2009 found that the Muslim community claimed to feel more patriotic about Britain than the general British population as a whole,[219][220] while another survey found that Muslims assert that they support the role of Christianity in British life more so than British Christians themselves.[221]

    However, a poll conducted by Demos in 2011 reported that a greater proportion of Muslims (47% – slightly higher than the 46.5% of Christians who agreed with the statement) than other religions agreed with the statement "I am proud of how Britain treats gay people", with less than 11% disagreeing.[222][223][224] On 18 May 2013, just as the bill to legalise same-sex marriages was being prepared to pass into law, over 400 leading Muslims including head teachers and senior representatives of mosques across the country, published an open letter opposing the bill on the grounds that "Muslim parents will be robbed of their right to raise their children according to their beliefs, as homosexual relationships are taught as something normal to their primary-aged children".[225] A face-to-face survey conducted in 2015 by ICM Research for Channel 4 found that 18 per cent of British Muslims agreed with the statement that homosexuality should be legal in Britain, while 52 per cent disagreed, and 22 per cent neither agreed or disagreed.[226][227]

    Protest against Israel's bombing of the Gaza Strip in London on 11 November 2023

    A 2016 report by the centre-right think tank Policy Exchange in conjunction with ICM Research found that 93 per cent of British Muslims hold fairly or very strong attachment to Britain, 53 per cent wanted to "fully integrate with non-Muslims in all aspects of life" and British Muslims were found to be more likely to condemn terrorism than the general population.[228] The report, which was co-authored by Khalid Mahmood MP, also found that British Muslims had "separatist" tendencies and were inclined to believe in conspiracy theories to do with 9/11 and plots to "do down Muslims". When asked what they would do if someone they knew was involved with supporters of terrorism in Syria, only 52% said they would report them to the police.[229][230]

    A survey carried out by J.L. Partners in 2024 reported that 52 per cent of British Muslims wanted to make it illegal to show a picture of Mohammed, 32 per cent wanted to see Sharia law implemented in the UK and 46 per cent believed Jews have too much power over UK government policy. The survey was conducted between February and March during the Israel–Hamas war with 46 per cent of British Muslims surveyed sympathising with Hamas and just 24 per cent believing that Hamas committed murder and rape in Israel on October 7th. Younger and more educated Muslims were more likely to hold these beliefs.[231][232]

    Attitudes towards British Muslims

    The

    British media has been criticised for propagating negative stereotypes of Muslims and fueling Islamophobic prejudice.[233] In 2006, several British cabinet ministers were criticised for helping to "unleash a public anti-Muslim backlash" by blaming the Muslim community over issues of integration despite a study commissioned by the Home Office on white and Asian-Muslim youths demonstrating otherwise: that Asian-Muslim youths "are in fact the most tolerant of all" and that white youths "have far more intolerant attitudes," concluding that the attitudes held by members of the white community was a greater "barrier to integration."[234][235]

    In January 2010, the British Social Attitudes Survey found that the general public "is far more likely to hold negative views of Muslims than of any other religious group," with "just one in four" feeling "positively about Islam," and a "majority of the country would be concerned if a mosque was built in their area, while only 15 per cent expressed similar qualms about the opening of a church."[236] The "scapegoating" of British Muslims by the media and politicians in the 21st century has been compared in the media to the rise of antisemitism in the early 20th century.[237]

    A 2013 survey by YouGov indicated that immigrants from Muslim countries were perceived as integrating less well into British society than immigrants from other countries were.[238] Another YouGov poll conducted in 2015 found that 55% of the British public believed there was a fundamental clash between Islam and the values of British society. Only 22% believed British values and Islam were generally compatible.[239]

    A survey conducted in 2017 by Chatham House revealed widespread opposition to Muslim immigration across the UK. 47% were opposed to further Muslim immigration meanwhile 23% disagreed with stopping further migration from mainly Muslim countries. This opposition figure was lower than other European countries, Austria: 65%; Belgium: 64%; France: 61%; Germany: 53%; Italy: 51%, and lower than the European average of 55%.[240]

    In 2019, a survey conducted by the Pew Research Center found that 78% of Britons had a favourable view of Muslims, while 18% had an unfavourable view of Muslims. This was the most favourable in Europe.[241]

    A 2021 study published by the University of Birmingham found that Muslims are the British public's second ‘least liked’ group, after Gypsy and Irish Travellers with 25.9% of the British public holding negative views towards Muslims and 23.5% holding a positive view.[242] People from middle and upper-class backgrounds were more likely to hold prejudiced views about Islam compared to those from working-class backgrounds. 71% of respondents named Islam as having a more negative impact on society compared to other religions with 18.1% of those surveyed supported banning all Muslim migration to the UK.[243]

    Islamophobia

    Main article: Islamophobia in the United Kingdom
    See also: English Defence League and Muslim patrol incidents in London

    A survey conducted in 2024 by Opinium for Hope not Hate found that 30 per cent of the British public believed that Islam was a threat to the British way of life and the existence of 'no-go' zones for non-Muslims in European cities. Conservative party members were more likely to hold these views, with 58% believing Islam was a threat and 52% believing in the existence of 'no-go' zones.[244]

    There have been cases of threats,

    Met Police figures showed an 8.5 per cent fall in anti-Muslim crimes between 2009 and 2012, with a spike in 2013 due to the murder of Lee Rigby.[252] In the four months following the 2023 Israel-Gaza conflict, Tell MAMA reported a more than three-fold increase in Islamophobic incidents to 2,010, with Muslim women targeted in two-thirds of incidents.[253]

    The emergence of the

    Anonymous.[266][full citation needed][267][268]

    Sikh relations

    See also: Sikhism in the United Kingdom § Alleged grooming of Sikh girls by Muslim men

    In 2018, a report by a Sikh activist organisation, Sikh Youth UK, entitled "The Religiously Aggravated Sexual Exploitation of Young Sikh Women Across the UK" made allegations of similarities between the case of Sikh women and the Rotherham child sexual exploitation scandal.[269] However, in 2019 this report was criticised by researchers and an official UK government report led by two Sikh academics for false and misleading information.[270][271] It noted: "The RASE report lacks solid data, methodological transparency and rigour. It is filled instead with sweeping generalisations and poorly substantiated claims around the nature and scale of abuse of Sikh girls and causal factors driving it. It appealed heavily to historical tensions between Sikhs and Muslims and narratives of honour in a way that seemed designed to whip up fear and hate".[271] Another investigation by another Sikh scholar, Katy Sian of the University of York, also found no truth to the allegations and instead found it was an allegation being pushed by extremist Sikh groups.[272][273]

    Antisemitism

    See also: Antisemitism in Islam and Antisemitism in the United Kingdom

    According to British Muslim journalist

    antisemitic views among Muslims was two to four times higher than the rest of the population,[275] that 55% of British Muslims held at least one antisemitic view (compared to 30% of the general population), and that there was a correlation between Muslim religiosity and antisemitism.[276] A 2020 poll by Hope not Hate found that 45% of British Muslims held a generally favourable view of British Jews, and 18% held a negative view.[277] A 2024 poll by a polling and research firm J.L. Partners ordered by Henry Jackson Society found that "Muslims in the South East are the most likely to hold antisemitic views, while Scottish Muslims are the least antisemitic."[278]

    In March 2024, the Civil Service Muslim Network (CSMN) was suspended by the Deputy Prime Minister, Oliver Dowden due to widespread use of antisemitic remarks and tropes. The network hosted webinars during working hours to coach civil servants on how to "lobby" and "petition" senior officials to change government policy on Israel, encouraged others to take up "resistance" against the government's stance, and taught members how to be "strategic and smart" in avoiding disciplinary action. This included using mental health facilities to "advocate" for Palestinian positions so that any advocacy would be done from a wellbeing perspective.[279] The CSMN has also been criticised for promoting homophobic websites as guidance for government officials.[280]

    Notable Muslims

    For a more comprehensive list, see List of British Muslims.

    Media and entertainment

    Politics

    • Waqar Azmi OBE, EU Ambassador of Intercultural Dialogue
    • Sadiq Khan, Labour Party mayor of London
    • Humza Yousaf, First Minister of Scotland and Leader of the SNP
    • Sayeeda Warsi, Conservative and Unionist Life Peer and former Cabinet Minister

    Sport

    Religious

    Philanthropy

    Military

    • Ashfaq Ahmed Malik MBE - Warrant Officer in the Royal Air Force 1980-2012, [293]

    Notable mosques

    See also: List of mosques in the United Kingdom and Category:Mosques in the United Kingdom

    See also

    Notes

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    Sources

    Further reading

    • Koenig, Matthias. "Incorporating Muslim migrants in Western nation states—a comparison of the United Kingdom, France, and Germany." in Marian Burchardt & Ines Michalowski, eds., After Integration (Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden, 2015) pp. 43–58.
    • Lewicki, Aleksandra, and Therese O’Toole. "Acts and practices of citizenship: Muslim women’s activism in the UK. Ethnic and Racial Studies 40#1 (2017): 152-171.
    • Lewicki, Aleksandra. Social Justice Through Citizenship?: The Politics of Muslim Integration in Germany and Great Britain (Springer, 2014).
    • Lewis, Valerie A., and Ridhi Kashyap. "Piety in a Secular Society: Migration, Religiosity, and Islam in Britain." International Migration 51#3 (2013): 57–66.
    • Model, Suzanne, and Lang Lin. "The cost of not being Christian: Hindus, Sikhs and Muslims in Britain and Canada." International Migration Review 36#4 (2002): 1061–1092.
    • Peach, Ceri, and Richard Gale. "Muslims, Hindus, and Sikhs in the new religious landscape of England." Geographical Review 93#4 (2003): 469–490.
    • Asbali, Nadeine Veiled Threat: On being visibly Muslim in Britain (Biteback Publishing, 2024)

    External links

    Wikimedia Commons has media related to Islam in the United Kingdom.
    Wikiquote has quotations related to Islam in the United Kingdom.
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