Brown bear
Brown bear Temporal range: Pleistocene-Holocene
Middle | |
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Kodiak bear on Kodiak Island | |
Scientific classification | |
Domain: | Eukaryota |
Kingdom: | Animalia |
Phylum: | Chordata |
Class: | Mammalia |
Order: | Carnivora |
Family: | Ursidae |
Genus: | Ursus |
Species: | U. arctos
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Binomial name | |
Ursus arctos Linnaeus, 1758
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Subspecies | |
Brown bear range map |
The brown bear (Ursus arctos) is a large
The brown bear is mostly found in
While the brown bear's range has shrunk, and it has faced local extinctions across its wide range, it remains listed as a
Etymology
The brown bear is sometimes referred to as the bruin, from Middle English. This name originated in the fable History of Reynard the Fox translated by William Caxton from Middle Dutch bruun or bruyn, meaning brown (the color).[3][4] In the mid-19th century United States, the brown bear was termed "Old Ephraim" and sometimes as "Moccasin Joe".[5]
The scientific name of the brown bear, Ursus arctos, comes from the Latin ursus, meaning "bear",[6] and the Greek ἄρκτος/arktos, also meaning "bear".[7]
Evolution and taxonomy
Evolution
The brown bear is one of eight extant species in the bear family Ursidae and of six extant species in the subfamily Ursinae.
A possible phylogeny based on complete mitochondrial DNA sequences from Yu et al. (2007).[8] | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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The polar bear and the brown bear form a close grouping, while the relationships of the other species are not very well resolved.[9] |
A more recent phylogeny based on the genetic study of Kumar et al. (2017).[10] | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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The study concludes that Ursine bears originated around 5 million years ago and show extensive hybridization of species in their lineage.[10] |
During the Pleistocene, brown bears were sympatric with extinct Ursinae species in North America.[11][12] Brown bears are thought to have evolved from Ursus etruscus in Asia.[13][14] The brown bear, per Kurten (1976), has been stated as "clearly derived from the Asian population of Ursus savini about 800,000 years ago; spread into Europe, to the New World."[15] A genetic analysis indicated that the brown bear lineage diverged from the cave bear species complex approximately 1.2–1.4 million years ago, but did not clarify if U. savini persisted as a paraspecies for the brown bear before perishing.[16] The oldest fossils positively identified as from this species occur in China from about 0.5 million years ago. Brown bears entered Europe about 250,000 years ago and North Africa shortly after.[13][17] Brown bear remains from the Pleistocene period are common in the British Isles, where amongst other factors, they may have contributed to the extinction of cave bears (Ursus spelaeus).[18]
Brown bears (along with lions, bison and red foxes) first emigrated to North America from Eurasia via Beringia during the Illinoian Glaciation.[19] Although Björn Kurtén hypothesized skull shape as an indicator of evolutionary history,[18] genetic evidence suggests several different populations of brown bear migrated into North America, aligning with the glacial cycles of the Pleistocene. The founding population of most North American brown bears arrived first, with the genetic lineage developing around ~177,000 BP, with fossils being first recovered ~111,000 BP from East Beringia. Genetic divergences suggest brown bears first migrated south during MIS-5 (~92,000–83,000 BP) upon the opening of the ice-free corridor,[19][20] with the first fossils being near Edmonton (26,000 BP).[12] The Alexander and Haida Gwaii archipelagoes have a separate lineage, which first appears around 20,000 BP. After a local extinction in Beringia ~33,000 BP, two new but closely related lineages repopulated Alaska and northern Canada from Eurasia after the Last Glacial Maximum (>25,000 BP).[19]
Brown bear fossils discovered in Ontario, Ohio, Kentucky and Labrador show that the species occurred farther east than indicated in historic records.[13] In North America, two types of the subspecies Ursus arctos horribilis are generally recognized—the coastal brown bear and the inland grizzly bear.[21]
Subspecies
Brown bear taxonomy and subspecies classification has been described as "formidable and confusing," with few authorities listing the same specific set of subspecies.[22] There are hundreds of obsolete brown bear subspecies, each with its own name, so this can become confusing. As many as 90 subspecies have been proposed.[23][24] However, recent DNA analysis has identified as few as five main clades which contain all extant brown bears,[25][26] while a 2017 phylogenetic study revealed nine clades, including one representing polar bears.[27] As of 2005[update], 15 extant or recently extinct subspecies were recognized by the general scientific community.[28][29]
As well as the exact number of overall brown bear subspecies, its precise relationship to the polar bear also remains in debate. The polar bear is a recent offshoot of the brown bear. The point at which the polar bear diverged from the brown bear is unclear, with estimations based on genetics and fossils ranging from 400,000 to 70,000 years ago, but most recent analysis has indicated that the polar bear split somewhere between 275,000 and 150,000 years ago.[30] Under some definitions, the brown bear can be construed as the paraspecies for the polar bear.[31]
DNA analysis shows that, apart from recent human-caused
Hybrids
A grizzly–polar bear hybrid is a rare ursid hybrid resulting from a crossbreeding of a brown bear and a polar bear. It has occurred both in captivity and in the wild. In 2006, the occurrence of this hybrid in nature was confirmed by testing the DNA of a strange-looking bear that had been shot in the Canadian Arctic, and seven more hybrids have since been confirmed in the same region, all descended from a single female polar bear.[38] Previously, the hybrid had been produced in zoos and was considered a "cryptid" (a hypothesized animal for which there is no scientific proof of existence in the wild).[39]
Analyses of the genomes of bears have shown that introgression between species was widespread during the evolution of the genus Ursus,[40] including the introgression of polar bear DNA introduced to brown bears during the Pleistocene.[41]
Description
The brown bear is the most variable in size of modern bears. The typical size depends upon which population it is from, and most accepted subtypes vary widely in size. This is in part due to sexual dimorphism, as male brown bears average at least 30% larger in most subtypes. Individual bears vary in size seasonally, weighing the least in spring due to lack of foraging during hibernation, and the most in late fall, after a period of hyperphagia to put on additional weight to prepare for hibernation. Therefore, a bear may need to be weighed in both spring and fall to get an idea of its mean annual weight.[42][43]
Generally brown bears weigh anywhere from 80 to 600 kg (180 to 1,320 lb), with males outweighing females.[44] The normal range of physical dimensions for a brown bear is a head-and-body length of 1.4 to 2.8 m (4 ft 7 in to 9 ft 2 in) and a shoulder height of 70 to 153 cm (2 ft 4 in to 5 ft 0 in). The tail is relatively short, as in all bears, ranging from 6 to 22 cm (2.4 to 8.7 in) in length.[45][46] The smallest brown bears, females during spring among barren-ground populations, can weigh so little as to roughly match the body mass of males of the smallest living bear species, the sun bear (Helarctos malayanus), while the largest coastal populations attain sizes broadly similar to those of the largest living bear species, the polar bear.[47] Interior brown bears are generally smaller than is often perceived, being around the same weight as an average lion, at an estimate average of 180 kg (400 lb) in males and 135 kg (298 lb) in females, whereas adults of the coastal populations weigh about twice as much.[48] The average weight of adult male bears from 19 populations, from around the world and various subspecies (including both large- and small-bodied subspecies), was found to be 217 kg (478 lb) while adult females from 24 populations were found to average 152 kg (335 lb).[21][49]
Coloration
Brown bears are often not fully brown.[50] They have long, thick fur, with a moderately long mane at the back of the neck which varies somewhat across the types.[51] In India, brown bears can be reddish with silver-tipped hairs, while in China brown bears are bicolored, with a yellowish-brown or whitish collar across the neck, chest and shoulders.[50][52] Even within well-defined subspecies, individuals may show highly variable hues of brown. North American grizzlies can be dark brown (almost black) to cream (almost white) or yellowish-brown and often have darker-colored legs. The common name "grizzly" stems from their typical coloration, with the hairs on their back usually being brownish-black at the base and whitish-cream at the tips, giving them their distinctive "grizzled" color. Apart from the cinnamon subspecies of the American black bear (U. americanus cinnamonum), the brown bear is the only modern bear species to typically appear truly brown.[53] The winter fur is very thick and long, especially in northern subspecies, and can reach 11 to 12 centimetres (4 to 5 in) at the withers. The winter hairs are thin, yet rough to the touch. The summer fur is much shorter and sparser, with its length and density varying geographically.[54]
Cranial morphology and size
Adults have massive, heavily built
Claws and feet
Brown bears have very large and curved claws, those present on the forelimbs being longer than those on the hind limbs. They may reach 5 to 6 centimetres (2.0 to 2.4 in) and may measure 7 to 10 centimetres (2.8 to 3.9 in) along the curve.[54] They are generally dark with a light tip, with some forms having completely light claws.[54] Brown bear claws are longer and straighter than those of American black bears (Ursus americanus).[53] The claws are blunt, while those of a black bear are sharp. Due to their claw structure, in addition to their excessive weight, adult brown bears cannot typically climb trees as well as black bears, although in rare cases adult female brown bears have been seen scaling trees.[58] The claws of a polar bear are quite different, being notably shorter but broader with a strong curve and sharper point.[17][59] The paws of the brown bear are quite large. The rear feet of adult bears measure 21 to 36 cm (8.3 to 14.2 in) long, while the forefeet tend to measure about 40% less in length.[60] Brown bears are the only extant bears with a hump at the top of their shoulder, which is made entirely of muscle, this feature having developed presumably for imparting more force in digging, which is habitual during foraging for the bear and also used heavily in den construction prior to hibernation.[53] The brown bear's strength has been roughly estimated as 2.5 to 5 times that of a human.[61]
Distribution and habitat
Brown bears were once native to Europe, much of Asia, the
In Europe, in 2010, there were 14,000 brown bears in ten fragmented populations, from Spain (estimated at only 20–25 animals in the Pyrenees in 2010,[67] in a range shared between Spain, France and Andorra, and some 210 animals in Asturias, Cantabria, Galicia and León, in the Picos de Europa and adjacent areas in 2013[68]) in the west, to Russia in the east, and from Sweden and Finland in the north to Romania (5000–6000), Bulgaria (900–1200), Slovakia (with about 600–800 animals), Slovenia (500–700 animals) and Greece (with Karamanlidis et al. 2015 estimating >450 animals) in the south.[69][70]
In Asia, brown bears are found primarily throughout Russia, thence more spottily southwest to parts of the Middle East, including almost all parts of
This species inhabits the broadest range of habitats of any living bear species.[60] They seem to have no altitudinal preferences and have been recorded from sea level to an elevation of 5,000 m (16,000 ft) in the Himalayas.[60] In most of their range, brown bears generally seem to prefer semiopen country, with a scattering of vegetation that can allow them a resting spot during the day. However, they have been recorded as inhabiting every variety of northern temperate forest known to occur.[60]
Conservation status
While the brown bear's range has shrunk and it has faced local extinctions, it remains listed as a
Behavior and life history
The brown bear is often described as
Brown bears have one of the largest brains of any extant carnivoran relative to their body size and have been shown to engage in tool use, which requires advanced cognitive abilities.
Communication
Several different facial expressions have been documented in brown bears. The "relaxed-face" is made in everyday activities and has the ears pointed to the sides and the mouth closed or slackly open. During social play, bears make "relaxed open-mouth face" in which the mouth is open, with a curled upper lip and hanging lower lip, and the ears alert and shifting. When looking at another animal at a distance, the bear makes an "alert face" as the ears are cocked and alert, the eyes wide open but the mouth is closed or only open slightly. The "tense closed mouth face" is made with the ears laid back and the mouth closed and occurs when the bear feels threatened. When approached by another individual, the animal makes a "puckered-lip face" with a protruding upper lip and ears which go from cocked and alert when at a certain distance to laid back when closer or when retreating. The "jaw gape face" consists of an open mouth with visible lower canines and hanging lips while the "biting face" is similar to the "relaxed open-mouth face" except the ears are flattened and the eyes are wide enough to expose the sclera. Both the "jaw gape face" and the "biting face" are made in aggression and bears switch between them.[88]
Brown bears also produce various vocalizations. Huffing occurs when the animal is tense while woofing is made when alarmed. Both sounds are produced by exhalations though huffing is harsher and is made continuously (two per second). Growls and roars are made in aggression. Growling is "harsh" and "guttural" and can range from a simple grrr to a rumble. A rumbling growl can escalate into a roar when the bear is charging. Roaring is described as "thunderous" and can travel 2 km (1.2 mi). Mothers and cubs wanting physical contact will bawl, which is heard as waugh!, waugh!.[88]
Home ranges
Brown bears usually occur over vast home ranges; however, they are not highly territorial. Several adult bears often roam freely over the same vicinity without issue, unless rights to a fertile female or food sources are being contested.[21][87] Males always cover more area than females each year. Despite their lack of traditional territorial behavior, adult males can seem to have a "personal zone" in which other bears are not tolerated if they are seen.[89] Males always wander further than females, due to both increasing access to females and food sources, while females are advantaged by smaller territories in part since it decreases the likelihood of encounters with male bears who may endanger their cubs.[21][90] In areas where food is abundant and concentrated, such as coastal Alaska, home ranges for females are up to 24 km2 (9.3 sq mi) and for males are up to 89 km2 (34 sq mi). Similarly, in British Columbia, bears of the two sexes travel relatively compact home ranges of 115 km2 (44 sq mi) and 318 km2 (123 sq mi). In Yellowstone National Park, home ranges for females are up to 281 km2 (108 sq mi) and up to 874 km2 (337 sq mi) for males. In Romania, the largest home range was recorded for adult males (3,143 km2, 1214 sq mi).[91] In the central Arctic of Canada, where food sources are quite sparse, home ranges range up to 2,434 km2 (940 sq mi) in females and 8,171 km2 (3,155 sq mi) in males.[92][87]
Reproduction
The
Males take no part in raising their cubs – parenting is left entirely to the females.
The cubs are fully dependent on the mother and a close bond is formed. During the dependency stage, the cubs learn (rather than inherit as instincts from birth) survival techniques, such as which foods have the highest nutritional value and where to obtain them; how to hunt, fish and defend themselves; and where to den.[92] Increased brain size in large carnivores has been positively linked to whether a given species is solitary, as is the brown bear, or raises their offspring communally, thus female brown bears have relatively large, well-developed brains, presumably key in teaching behavior.[108] The cubs learn by following and imitating their mother's actions during the period they are with her.[60] Cubs remain with their mother for an average of 2.5 years in North America, uncommonly being independent as early as 1.5 years of age or as late as 4.5 years of age.[48] The stage at which independence is attained may generally be earlier in some parts of Eurasia, as the latest date which mother and cubs were together was 2.3 years, most families separated in under two years in a study from Hokkaido and in Sweden most cubs on their own were still yearlings.[109][110] Brown bears practice infanticide, as an adult male bear may kill the cubs of another.[90] When an adult male brown bear kills a cub, it is usually because he is trying to bring the female into oestrus, as she will enter that state within two to four days after the death of her cubs.[90] Cubs may flee up a tree when they see a strange male bear approaching. The mother often successfully defends them, even though the male may be twice as heavy as her. However, females have been known to die in such confrontations.[90][111][112]
Dietary habits
The brown bear is one of the most
In the Kamchatka peninsula and several parts of coastal Alaska, brown bears feed mostly on spawning salmon, whose nutrition and abundance explain the enormous size of the bears in these areas. The fishing techniques of bears are well-documented. They often congregate around falls when the salmon are forced to breach the water, at which point the bears will try to catch the fish in mid-air (often with their mouths). They will also wade into shallow waters, hoping to pin a slippery salmon with their claws. While they may eat almost all the parts of the fish, bears at the peak of spawning, when there is usually a glut of fish to feed on, may eat only the most nutrious parts of the salmon (including the eggs and head) and then indifferently leave the rest of the carcass to scavengers, which can include red foxes, bald eagles, common ravens and gulls. Despite their normally solitary habits, brown bears will gather rather closely in numbers at good spawning sites. The largest and most powerful males claim the most fruitful fishing spots and bears (especially males) will sometimes fight over the rights to a prime fishing spot.[53]
Beyond the regular predation of salmon, most brown bears are not particularly active predators.[53] While perhaps a majority of bears of the species will charge at large prey at one point in their lives and most eat carrion, many predation attempts start with the bear clumsily and half-heartedly pursuing the prey and end with the prey escaping alive.[53] On the other hand, some brown bears are quite self-assured predators who habitually pursue and catch large prey items. Such bears are usually taught how to hunt by their mothers from an early age.[53] Large mammals preyed on can include various ungulate species such as elk, moose, caribou, muskoxen and wild boar.[21] When brown bears attack these large animals, they usually target young or infirm ones, as they are easier to catch. Typically when hunting (especially with young prey), the bear pins its prey to the ground and then immediately tears and eats it alive.[117] It will also bite or swipe some prey to stun it enough to knock it over for consumption.[118] To pick out young or infirm individuals, bears will charge at herds so the slower-moving and more vulnerable individuals will be made apparent. Brown bears may ambush young animals by finding them via scent.[21] When emerging from hibernation, brown bears, whose broad paws allow them to walk over most ice and snow, may pursue large prey such as moose whose hooves cannot support them on encrusted snow.[118] Similarly, predatory attacks on large prey sometimes occur at riverbeds, when it is more difficult for the prey specimen to run away due to muddy or slippery soil.[21] On rare occasions, while confronting fully-grown, dangerous prey, bears kill them by hitting with their powerful forearms, which can break the necks and backs of large creatures such as adult moose and adult bison.[53] They feed on carrion, and use their size to intimidate other predators, such as wolves, cougars, tigers, and American black bears from their kills. Carrion is especially important in the early spring (when the bears are emerging from hibernation), much of it comprising winter-killed big game.[21] Cannibalism is not unheard of, though predation is not normally believed to be the primary motivation when brown bears attack each other.[53]
When forced to live in close proximity with humans and their domesticated animals, bears may potentially predate any type of domestic animal. Among these, domestic cattle are sometimes exploited as prey. Cattle are bitten on the neck, back or head and then the abdominal cavity is opened for eating.[21] Plants and fruit farmed by humans are readily consumed as well, including corn, wheat, sorghum, melons and any form of berries.[53] They may feed on domestic bee yards, readily consuming both honey and the brood (grubs and pupae) of the honey bee colony.[53] Human foods and trash are eaten when possible. When an open garbage dump was kept in Yellowstone, brown bears were one of the most voracious and regular scavengers. The dump was closed after both brown and American black bears came to associate humans with food and lost their natural fear of them.[53]
Interspecific predatory relationships
Adult bears are generally immune to predatory attacks except from large Siberian (Amur) tigers and other bears. Following a decrease of ungulate populations from 1944 to 1959, 32 cases of Siberian tigers attacking both Ussuri brown bears (Ursus arctos lasiotus) and Ussuri black bears (U. thibetanus ussuricus) were recorded in the Russian Far East, and hair of bears were found in several tiger scat samples. Tigers attack black bears less often than brown bears, since the black bears live in more open habitats and are not able to climb trees. In the same time period, four cases of brown bears killing female tigers and young cubs were reported, both in disputes over prey and in self-defense. Tigers mainly feed on the bear's fat deposits, such as the back, hams and groin.[54]
In rare cases, when Amur tigers prey on brown bears, they usually target young and sub-adult bears, besides small female adults taken outside their dens, generally when lethargic from hibernation.[119] Predation by tigers on denned brown bears was not detected during a study carried between 1993 and 2002.[120] Ussuri brown bears, along with the smaller black bears constitute 2.1% of the Siberian tiger's annual diet, of which 1.4% are brown bears.[121][122]
The effect the presence of tigers have on a brown bears behavior seems to vary. In the winters of 1970–1973, Yudakov and Nikolaev recorded two cases of bears showing no fear of tigers and another case of a brown bear changing path upon crossing tiger tracks.[123] Other researchers have observed bears following tiger tracks to scavenge tiger kills and to potentially prey on tigers.[54][121] Despite the threat of predation, some brown bears actually benefit from the presence of tigers by appropriating tiger kills that the bears may not be able to successfully hunt themselves.[121] During telemetry research in the Sikhote-Alin Nature Reserve, 44 direct confrontations between bears and tigers were observed, in which bears (not just brown bears) in general were killed in 22 cases, and tigers in 12 cases.[124] There are reports of brown bears specifically targeting Amur leopards and tigers to abstract their prey. In the Sikhote-Alin reserve, 35% of tiger kills were stolen by bears, with tigers either departing entirely or leaving part of the kill for the bear.[125] Some studies show that bears frequently track down tigers to usurp their kills, with occasional fatal outcomes for the tiger. A report from 1973 describes twelve known cases of brown bears killing tigers, including adult males. In all cases, the tigers were subsequently eaten by the bears.[126][127]
Brown bears regularly intimidate wolves to drive them away from their kills. In Yellowstone National Park, bears pirate wolf kills so often, Yellowstone's Wolf Project director Doug Smith wrote, "It's not a matter of if the bears will come calling after a kill, but when." Despite the high animosity between the two species, most confrontations at kill sites or large carcasses end without bloodshed on either side. Though conflict over carcasses is common, on rare occasions, the two predators tolerate each other on the same kill. To date, there is a single recorded case of fully-grown wolves being killed by a grizzly bear.[128] Given the opportunity, however, both species will prey on the other's cubs.[129]
In some areas, grizzly bears regularly displace
Brown bears usually dominate other bear species in areas where they coexist. Due to their smaller size, American black bears are at a competitive disadvantage to grizzly bears in open, unforested areas. Although displacement of black bears by grizzly bears has been documented, actual interspecific killing of black bears by grizzlies has only occasionally been reported. Confrontation is mostly avoided due to the black bear's diurnal habits and preference for heavily forested areas, as opposed to the grizzly's largely nocturnal habits and preference for open spaces.[134] Brown bears may also kill Asian black bears, though the latter species probably largely avoids conflicts with the brown bear, due to similar habits and habitat preferences to the American black species.[135]
As of the 21st century, there has been an increase in interactions between brown bears and polar bears, theorized to be caused by climate change. Brown and grizzly bears have been seen moving increasingly northward into territories formerly claimed by polar bears. They tend to dominate polar bears in disputes over carcasses,[136] and dead polar bear cubs have been found in brown bear dens.[137]
Longevity and mortality
The brown bear has a naturally long life. Wild females have been observed reproducing up to 28 years of age, which is the oldest known age for reproduction of any ursid in the wild. The peak reproductive age for females ranges from four to 20 years old.[60][138] The lifespan of brown bears of both sexes within minimally hunted populations is estimated at an average of 25 years. The oldest wild brown bear on record was nearly 37 years old.[139] The oldest recorded female in captivity was nearly 40 years old, while males in captivity have been verified to live up to 47 years, with one captive male possibly attaining 50 years of age.[21][46]
While male bears potentially live longer in captivity, female grizzly bears have a greater annual survival rate than males within wild populations per a study done in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem.[140] Annual mortality for bears of any age is estimated at 10% in most protected areas.[60] Around 13% to 44% of cubs die within their first year even in well-protected areas.[21] Beyond predation by large predators including wolves, Siberian tigers and other brown bears, starvation and accidents also claim the lives of cubs. Studies have indicated that the most prevalent source of mortality for first-year cubs is malnutrition.[21]
Brown bears are susceptible to parasites such as
Hibernation physiology
Scientists are interested in understanding the hibernation physiology of brown bears, specifically in how they stay healthy after six months of inactivity.[145] It has been suggested by scientists that understanding how brown bears stay healthy during hibernation may potentially help lead to cures for human diseases such as diabetes or cardiovascular disease.[145] A study conducted through the Scandinavian Brown Bear Research Project did a proteomic analysis of the brown bear's blood, organs, and tissues to pinpoint proteins and peptides that either increased or decreased in expression in the winter and summer months.[145] One major finding was that the plasma protein sex hormone-binding globulin (SHBG) increased during the brown bear's hibernation period by 45 times.[145] Although scientists do not yet understand the role of SHBG in maintaining the brown bear's health, some scientists believe these findings could potentially be a factor in preventing human diseases that come from a sedentary life style.[145]
Relationship with humans
Attacks on humans
Brown bears usually avoid areas where extensive development or urbanization has occurred.
Bear hunting
Hunting of brown bears has occurred since ancient times, mainly for sports and royal showings of power. Humans have been recorded hunting brown bears for over 10,300–9,300 years.[156] In Europe between the 17th and 18th centuries, humans sought to control brown bear numbers by awarding those who managed to kill one. This bounty scheme pushed the brown bear population to the brink of extinction before comprehensive protection was offered in the 1900s. In northern Europe, hunting still persists in the 21st century, contributing significantly to the drop in brown bear numbers.[157] In some places in Europe, bears are tricked into entering traps with the help of a bait.[152] Brown bears are legally hunted in some American states, such as Alaska. However, a hunting license is required and killings of females with cubs will result in a prison sentence.[158]
Their meat is sometimes consumed and used in recipes such as dumplings, hams and stews. The Indigenous people of James Bay (Eastern) Cree use their flesh in traditional dishes. In Asia and Romania, the paws are consumed as exotic delectables; it has been a prevalent component of traditional Chinese food since 500 BC. The total weight of commercially sold brown bear meat is estimated at 17 tons annually.[159]
In captivity
There are more than 700 brown bears in
They are also exploited as dancing bears. The process begins at an early age. Cubs, for example, are positioned on hot metal plates, causing them to exhibit dancing movements, and at the same time, violin music is running in the background. The process is repeated, resulting in bears being trained to dance when a violin is played. Similarly, brown bears are also displayed in tiny enclosures near a restaurant, mainly for the purpose of luring customers. Privately-owned bears are often placed in insufficient environments and often suffer from malnutrition and obesity.[162] According to a 2009 analysis, brown bears were the second most exploited circus animal after the tiger.[163]
Culture
Brown bears often figure into the literature of Europe and North America as "cute and cuddly", in particular that which is written for children. "
In Ancient Greek mythology, bears have been compared to humans as similar, mainly due to their ability of standing upright. In many western stories and older fables the portrayed attributes of bears are sluggishness, foolishness and gullibility, contradictory to actual species. Bears have been reported tricking hunters by backtracking in the snow.[165] The Romans built small carved figures of bears that were used during burials of infants.[166] The earliest cave paintings of bears occurred in the Paleolithic, with over 100 recorded paintings.[167]
The
The coat of arms of Madrid depicts a bear reaching up into a madroño or strawberry tree (Arbutus unedo) to eat some of its fruit, whereas the Swiss city of Bern's coat of arms also depicts a bear and the city's name is popularly thought to derive from the German word for bear.[173][174] The brown bear is depicted on the reverse of the Croatian 5 kuna coin, minted since 1993.[175]
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Notes
- ^ Populations of Bhutan, China, Mexico and Mongolia are included in Appendix I. All other populations are included in Appendix II.
Bibliography
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