Brownfield land
Brownfield is land that is abandoned or underutilized due to
Examples of post industrial brownfield sites include abandoned factories, dry cleaning establishments, and gas stations.[6][3] Typical contaminants include hydrocarbon spillages, solvents and pesticides, asbestos, and heavy metals like lead.[7][8]
Many contaminated post-industrial brownfield sites sit unused because the cleaning costs may be more than the land is worth after redevelopment. Previously unknown underground wastes can increase the cost for study and clean-up.[9] Depending on the contaminants and damage present adaptive re-use and disposal of a brownfield can require advanced and specialized appraisal analysis techniques.[9]
Definition
Canada
The Federal Government of Canada defines brownfields as "abandoned, idle or underutilized commercial or industrial properties [typically located in urban areas] where past actions have caused environmental contamination, but which still have potential for redevelopment or other economic opportunities."[10]
United States
The
The term brownfield' first came into use on June 28, 1992, at a U.S. congressional field hearing hosted by the Northeast Midwest Congressional Coalition. Also in 1992, the first detailed policy analysis of the issue was convened by the Cuyahoga County, Ohio Planning Commission. EPA selected Cuyahoga County as its first brownfield pilot project in September 1993.[12] The term applies more generally to previously used land or to sections of industrial or commercial facilities that are to be upgraded.[13]
In 2002, President George W. Bush signed the Small Business Liability Relief and Brownfields Revitalization Act (the "Brownfields Law") which provides grants and tools to local governments for the assessment, cleanup, and revitalization of brownfields as well as unique technical and program management experience, and public and environmental health expertise to individual brownfield communities. The motivation for this act was the success of the EPA's brownfields program, which it started in the 1990s in response to several court cases that caused lenders to redline contaminated property for fear of liability under the Superfund. As of September 2023, the EPA estimates that the EPA Brownfields program has resulted in 134,414 acres of land readied for reuse.[14]
Mothballed brownfields are properties that the owners are not willing to transfer or put to productive reuse.[15]
Brownfield status is a legal designation which places restrictions, conditions or incentives on redevelopment and use on the site.[16]
United Kingdom
In the United Kingdom, brownfield land and previously developed land (PDL) have the same definition under the National Planning Policy Framework (NPPF).[17][18] The government of the United Kingdom refers to them both as: "Land which is or was occupied by a permanent structure, including the curtilage of the developed land (although it should not be assumed that the whole of the curtilage should be developed) and any associated fixed surface infrastructure."[18][19]
They exclude land that: "is or has been occupied by agricultural or forestry buildings; has been developed for minerals extraction or waste disposal by landfill purposes where provision for restoration has been made through development control procedures; land in built-up areas such as private residential gardens, parks, recreation grounds and allotments; and land that was previously developed but where the remains of the permanent structure or fixed surface structure have blended into the landscape in the process of time."[18][19]
Locations and contaminants
Generally, post industrial brownfield sites exist in a city's or town's industrial section, on locations with abandoned factories or commercial buildings, or other previously polluting operations like steel mills, refineries or landfills.[20]
Small brownfields also may be found in older residential neighborhoods, as for example
Typical contaminants found on contaminated brownfield land include
Old maps may assist in identifying areas to be tested.Brownfield status by country
This article needs additional citations for verification. (June 2022) |
The primary issue facing all nations involved in attracting and sustaining new uses to brownfield sites is globalization of industry.[citation needed] This directly affects brownfield reuse, such as limiting the effective economic life of the use on the revitalized sites.[citation needed]
Canada
Canada has an estimated 200,000 "contaminated sites" across the nation.[citation needed] As of 2016[update] Canada had about 23,078 federally recognized contamination sites, from abandoned mines, to airports, lighthouse stations, and military bases, which are classified into N 1,2,or 3, depending on a score of contamination, with 5,300 active contaminated sites, 2,300 suspected sites and 15,000 listed as closed because remediated or no action was necessary.[21][22]
The provincial governments have primary responsibility for brownfields.[citation needed] The provinces' legal mechanisms for managing risk are limited, as there are no tools such as "No Further Action" letters to give property owners finality and certainty in the cleanup and reuse process.[citation needed] Yet, Canada has cleaned up sites and attracted investment to contaminated lands such as the Moncton rail yards.[citation needed] A strip of the Texaco lands in Mississauga is slated to be part of the Waterfront Trail.[citation needed] However, Imperial Oil has no plans to sell the 75-acre (30 ha) property which has been vacant since the 1980s.
According to their 2014 report on federally listed contaminated sites, the Parliamentary Budget Officer estimated that the "total liability for remediating Canada's contaminated sites reported in the public accounts [was] $4.9 billion."
The federal government exercises some control over environmental protection, the "provincial and territorial governments issue the bulk of legislation regarding contaminated sites."[23]: 4–5 Under the Shared-Responsibility Contaminated Sites Policy Framework (2005), the government may provide funding for the remediation of nonfederal sites, if the contamination is related to federal government activities or national security. See Natural Resources Canada (2012)
Denmark
While Denmark lacks the large land base which creates the magnitude of brownfield issues facing countries such as Germany and the U.S., brownfield sites in areas critical to the local economies of Denmark's cities require sophisticated solutions and careful interaction with affected communities. Examples include the cleanup and redevelopment of former and current ship building facilities along Copenhagen's historic waterfront. Laws in Denmark require a higher degree of coordination of planning and reuse than is found in many other countries.
France
In France, brownfields are called friches industrielles and the Ministère de l'Écologie, du Développement Durable et de l'Énergie (MEDDE) maintains a database of polluted sites named BASOL, with "more than 4000 sites".[27] of about 300,000 to 400,000 potentially polluted sites total (around 100,000 ha),[28] in a historical inventory named BASIAS, maintained by the Agence de l'Environnement et de la Maitrise de l'Energie (ADEME).
Hong Kong
Developing brownfield land is considered by the public as one of the most popular ways to increase housing in Hong Kong.[29] The Liber Research Community has found 1,521 hectares of brownfield land in Hong Kong, and has found that almost 90% of existing uses of the land could easily be moved into multi-story buildings, freeing up land that could be used efficiently for housing.[30] In June 2021, Liber Research Community and Greenpeace East Asia collaborated and found a new total of 1,950 hectares of brownfield sites, 379 more hectares than the government was previously able to locate.[31]
Germany
Germany loses greenfields at a rate of about 1.2 square kilometres per day for settlement and transportation infrastructure. Each of the approximately 14,700 local municipalities is empowered to allocate lands for industrial and commercial use. Local control over reuse decisions of German brownfield sites (Industriebrache) is a critical factor. Industrial sites tend to be remote due to zoning laws, and incur costly overhead for providing infrastructure such as utilities, disposal services and transportation.[citation needed] In 1989, a brownfield of the Ruhrgebiet became Emscher Park.[32]
United Kingdom
In the
The UK government has recognised the ecological importance of brownfield sites and has afforded some protection to such habitats through the United Kingdom Biodiversity Action Plan.[34] The Creekside Discovery Centre in Deptford, London is an urban wildlife centre encompassing brownfield habitats.[35]
United States
United States estimates suggest there are over 500,000 brownfield sites contaminated at levels below the Superfund caliber (the most contaminated) in the country.[citation needed] While historic land use patterns created contaminated sites, the Superfund law has been criticized as creating the brownfield phenomenon where investment moves to greenfields for new development due to severe, no-fault liability schemes and other disincentives.[citation needed] The Clinton-Gore administration and US EPA launched a series of brownfield policies and programs in 1993 to tackle this problem.[citation needed]
Redevelopment
Valuation and financing
Acquisition, adaptive re-use, and disposal of a brownfield site requires advanced and specialized appraisal analysis techniques. For example, the highest and best use of the brownfield site may be affected by the contamination, both before and after remediation. Additionally, the value should take into account residual stigma and potential for third-party liability. Normal appraisal techniques frequently fail, and appraisers must rely on more advanced techniques, such as contingent valuation, case studies, or statistical analyses.[36][failed verification] A 2011 University of Delaware study has suggested a 17.5:1 return on dollars invested on brownfield redevelopment.[37] A 2014 study of EPA brownfield cleanup grants from 2002 through 2008 found an average benefit value of almost $4 million per brownfield site (with a median of $2,117,982).[38] To expedite the cleanup of brownfield sites in the US, some environmental firms have teamed up with insurance companies to underwrite the cleanup and provide a guaranteed cleanup cost to limit land developers' exposure to environmental remediation costs and pollution lawsuits. The environmental firm first performs an extensive investigation generally in the form of desk studies and potentially further intrusive investigation.[39]
Remediation strategies
This section needs additional citations for verification. (May 2011) |
Innovative
Research is under way to see if some brownfields can be used to grow crops, specifically for the production of
The regeneration of brownfields in the United Kingdom and in other European countries has gained prominence due to greenfield land restrictions as well as their potential to promote the urban renaissance.[13] Development of brownfield sites also presents an opportunity to reduce the environmental impact on communities, and considerable assessments need to take place in order to evaluate the size of this opportunity.[42]
Barriers
This section needs additional citations for verification. (May 2011) |
Many contaminated brownfield sites sit unused for decades because the cost of cleaning them to safe standards is more than the land would be worth after redevelopment, in the process becoming involuntary parks as they grow over. However, redevelopment has become more common in the first decade of the 21st century, as developable land has become less available in highly populated areas, and brownfields contribute to environmental stigma which can delay redevelopment.[43] Also, the methods of studying contaminated land have become more sophisticated and costly.[citation needed]
Some states and localities have spent considerable money assessing the contamination on local brownfield sites, to quantify the cleanup costs in an effort to move the redevelopment process forward. Therefore, federal and state programs have been developed to help developers interested in cleaning up brownfield sites and restoring them to practical uses.[citation needed]
In the process of cleaning contaminated brownfield sites, previously unknown
Post-redevelopment uses
Commercial and residential
As of 2006[update] the
- In Pittsburgh's Squirrel Hill neighborhood, a former slag dump for steel mills was turned into a $243 million residential development called Summerset at Frick Park.
- In Pittsburgh's Southside Works, a mixed-use development that includes high-end entertainment, retail, offices, and housing.
- In the Jones and Laughlin steel mill site was transformed into a $104 million office park called Pittsburgh Technology Center.
- In Herr's Island, a 17-hectare (42-acre) island on the western bank of the Washington's Landing, a waterfront center for commerce, manufacturing, recreation and upscale housing
Solar landfill
A
Regulation
United States
In the United States,
United Kingdom
In the United Kingdom, regulation of contaminated land comes from Part IIA of the Environmental Protection Act 1990; responsibility falls on local authorities to create a "contaminated land register". For sites with dubious past and present uses the Local Planning Authority may ask for a desktop study,[48] which is sometimes implemented as a condition in planning applications.[49] However by definition land that is derelict or underused is highly unlikely to be determined as contaminated land – especially due to risks to human health.
The key regulation of brownfield land is through the land use planning system when a new land use is being considered.
See also
- Greenfield project
- Brockton Brightfield (brownfield turned into a solar power plant)
- Greyfield land
- HUD USER
- Industrial nature
- Love Canal
- Redevelopment of Mumbai mills (unused mills being re-developed)
- Regulatory Barriers Clearinghouse
- Small Business Liability Relief and Brownfields Revitalization Act
- Waste (law)
- Urban renewal
- Vapor Intrusion
References
- ^ a b "Glossary of Brownfields Terms". Brownfields Center. Washington, D.C.: Environmental Law Institute. Archived from the original on February 26, 2015.
- ^ S2CID 236348006.
- ^ ISSN 0197-3975.
- ISSN 2071-1050.
- S2CID 153395212.
- ISSN 2071-1050.
- ISSN 2071-1050.
- ISSN 0264-8377.
- ^ S2CID 58557619.
- ^ "About contaminated sites". Federal Contaminated Sites Portal. Environment and Climate Change Canada. November 10, 2018. Archived from the original on November 10, 2018.
- ^ "Overview of EPA's Brownfields Program". Washington, D.C.: United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). July 26, 2021.
- ^ "Brownfields Program Achievements Linked to Early Success" (PDF). EPA. October 2006. Fact sheet. EPA 560-F-06-267.
- ^ .
- ^ Thomas Voltaggio and John Adams. "Superfund: A Half Century of Progress." EPA Alumni Association. March 2016.
- ^ "Revitalizing Mothballed Properties: Challenges, Success Stories and Solutions". EPA. 2008. EPA 560-R-08-003.
- ^ US EPA, OLEM (July 24, 2014). "Summary of the Small Business Liability Relief and Brownfields Revitalization Act". www.epa.gov. Retrieved June 1, 2022.
- ^ "Brownfield land registers". GOV.UK. Retrieved February 20, 2023.
- ^ a b c "National Planning Policy Framework" (PDF). GOV.UK. Retrieved February 9, 2023.
- ^ a b "National Planning Policy Framework - Annex 2: Glossary - Guidance - GOV.UK". www.gov.uk. Retrieved February 20, 2023.
- ^ a b "Contaminated land -Overview". UK: Crown Copyright. November 10, 2016.
- ^ "Inventory of Sites-How many federal contaminated sites are there in Canada?". Federal Contaminated Sites Portal, Environment Canada. October 3, 2016. Archived from the original on April 19, 2017. Retrieved February 16, 2017.
- ^ Environment and Climate Change Canada (December 7, 2022). "Action plan for contaminated sites". www.canada.ca. Retrieved March 24, 2023.
- ^ a b c d Rod Story, Tolga Yalkin (April 10, 2014). "Federal Contaminated Sites Cost" (PDF). Parliamentary Budget Officer (PBO). Ottawa, Ontario. p. 41. Retrieved September 5, 2015.
- ^ a b "Contracts Awarded for Port Hope Area Initiative". Natural Resources Canada. Ottawa, Ontario. July 30, 2015. Retrieved September 5, 2015.
- ^ "Port Hope Area Initiative". Archived from the original on August 20, 2009. Retrieved January 13, 2009.
- ^ Carola Vyhnak (November 9, 2010). "Port Hope properties tested for radiation". Toronto Star. Retrieved January 14, 2013.
- ^ "9. Combien y a-t-il de sites pollués ?". Ministère de l'Écologie, du Développement Durable et de l'Énergie (MEDDE). n.d.
- ^ "Les friches urbaines dans les SCoT et les PLU". ADEME. August 28, 2014.
- ^ "Brownfield site use and reclamation 'most popular' land supply options". South China Morning Post. September 2, 2018. Retrieved May 24, 2021.
- ^ "Government 'exaggerated constraints' in freeing up brownfield sites". South China Morning Post. December 20, 2018. Retrieved May 24, 2021.
- ^ "Hong Kong NGOs find enough unidentified brownfield sites to build 95,000 homes". South China Morning Post. June 10, 2021. Retrieved June 23, 2021.
- ^ "Emscher Park: From dereliction to scenic landscapes". Kopenhagen: Danish Architecture Centre. n.d.
- ^ "What are the barriers to brownfield development?".
- ^ https://cdn.buglife.org.uk/2019/08/Planning-for-Brownfield-Biodiversity.pdf
- ^ "About Us : Creekside Discovery Centre".
- Lexis-NexisMatthew Bender's Brownfield Law and Practice, 2007.
- ^ Montgomery, Jeff (May 14, 2011). "Cleaning up contamination". The News Journal. New Castle, Delaware: Gannett. DelawareOnline. Archived from the original on May 14, 2011. Retrieved May 14, 2011. The first online page is archived; the page containing information related here is not in the archived version.
- ^ a b c Kriston Capps (July 29, 2014). "How Much Cleaning Up Brownfields Is Really Worth". The Atlantic Monthly.
- ^ Environmental, Oakshire. "Commercial development on contaminated land". Oakshire Environmental. Archived from the original on March 17, 2021. Retrieved May 24, 2021.
- ^ "ASLA 2011 Professional Awards | The Steel Yard". www.asla.org. Retrieved June 22, 2019.
- ^ University, Michigan State. "Brownfields may turn green with help from Michigan State research". MSUToday. Retrieved June 22, 2019.
- ^ "Brownfield Sites". www.sustainablebuild.co.uk. September 11, 2006. Retrieved June 22, 2019.
- ^ Coming Back from Economic Despair. Henry Mayer and Micheal Greenburg. Economic Development Quarterly, August 2001.
- ^ "Building a City Within the City of Atlanta". The New York Times. May 24, 2006. Retrieved June 16, 2014.
- ^ "U.S. Landfills Are Getting a Second Life as Solar Farms". June 2, 2022.
- ^ "Brownfields Tax Incentive" (URL). Environmental Protection Agency. Retrieved November 29, 2009.
- ^ "Brownfields Overview Page". National Conference of State Legislatures. Retrieved November 29, 2009.
- ^ Environmental, Oakshire. "What is a Phase 1 Preliminary Risk Assessment?". Oakshire Environmental. Retrieved November 25, 2019.
- ^ "Desktop Study Reports - London, Bristol & Exeter". Southwest Environmental Limited. n.d. Retrieved June 16, 2014.
Further reading
- Sustainable Brownfield Regeneration (PDF). Concerted Action on Brownfield and Economic Regeneration Network (Report). University of Nottingham. 2006. p. 3. ISBN 0-9547474-5-3. Archived from the original(PDF) on April 2, 2015.
External links
- United States EPA Brownfields Homepage
- Parents Demand Curbs on Schools Built on Contaminated Land
- Photographies of French Brownfields.
- Photographies of German Brownfields.
- National Brownfields Conference cosponsored by the U.S. EPA and ICMA
- From Industrial Wasteland to Community Park
- From Brownfield to Greenfield: A New Working Landscape for Wellesley College Wrenched from its Toxic Past
- The Brownfields Center at Carnegie Mellon University
- Browninfo Methodology and Software for Development of Interactive Brownfield Databases
- Brownfield Land at Curlie