Brunei
Brunei Darussalam Negara Brunei Darussalam (Malay) | |
---|---|
Motto:
| |
Anthem:
| |
Capital and largest city | Bandar Seri Begawan 4°53.417′N 114°56.533′E / 4.890283°N 114.942217°E |
Official language | Malay[1] |
Other languages
and dialects Jawi alphabet[2] | |
Crown Prince and Senior Minister | Al-Muhtadee Billah |
Legislature | Legislative Council of Brunei[a] |
Formation | |
c. 1368 | |
17 September 1888 | |
• Independence from the United Kingdom | 1 January 1984 |
+673[c] | |
ISO 3166 code | BN |
Internet TLD | .bn[12] |
|
Brunei,
At the
During the 19th century, the Bruneian Empire began to decline. The Sultanate ceded Sarawak (
Brunei has been led by Sultan
Etymology
According to local historiography, Brunei was founded by Awang Alak Betatar, later to be
It was renamed "Barunai" in the 14th century, possibly influenced by the
The earliest recorded documentation by the West about Brunei is by an Italian known as Ludovico di Varthema. On his documentation back to 1550;
We arrived at the island of Bornei (Brunei or Borneo), which is distant from the Maluch about two hundred miles [three hundred kilometres], and we found that it was somewhat larger than the aforesaid and much lower. The people are pagans and are men of goodwill. Their colour is whiter than that of the other sort ... in this island justice is well administered ...[25]
History
Early history
Areas comprising what is now Brunei participated in the
In the 14th century, the Javanese manuscript Nagarakretagama, written by Prapanca in 1365, mentioned Barune as the constituent state of Hindu Majapahit,[40] which had to make an annual tribute of 40 katis of camphor. In 1369, Sulu which was also formerly part of Majapahit, had successfully rebelled and then attacked Boni, and had invaded the Northeast Coast of Borneo[41] and afterwards had looted the capital of its treasure and gold including sacking two sacred pearls. A fleet from Majapahit succeeded in driving away the Sulus, but Boni was left weaker after the attack.[42] A Chinese report from 1371 described Boni as poor and totally controlled by Majapahit.[43] When the Chinese admiral Zheng He visited the Brunei in the early 15th century, he founded a major trading port which included Chinese people who were actively trading with China.[44]
During the 15th century, Boni had seceded from Majapahit and then converted to Islam. Thus transforming into the independent Sultanate of Brunei. Brunei became a
War with Spain and decline
Spain
In March 1578, a fresh Spanish fleet had arrived from Mexico and settled at the Philippines, they were led by
Eventually, the Spanish invaded the capital on 16 April 1578, with the help of Pengiran Seri Lela and Pengiran Seri Ratna, burning towns and raping populations. The Sultan Saiful Rijal and Paduka Seri Begawan Sultan Abdul Kahar were forced to flee to Meragang then to
Pengiran Seri Lela died in August or September 1578, probably from the same illness suffered by his Spanish allies.[
The local Brunei accounts
Brunei eventually descended into anarchy. The country suffered a
British intervention
The British have intervened in the affairs of Brunei on several occasions. Britain attacked Brunei in July 1846 due to internal conflicts over who was the rightful Sultan.[70]
In the 1880s, the decline of the
Sultan
Discovery of oil
Petroleum was discovered in 1929 after several fruitless attempts. Oil and natural gas have been the basis of Brunei's development and wealth since the late 20th century.
Japanese occupation
This section needs additional citations for verification. (December 2017) |
The Japanese invaded Brunei on 16 December 1941, eight days after their attack on Pearl Harbor and the United States Navy. They landed 10,000 troops of the Kawaguchi Detachment from Cam Ranh Bay at Kuala Belait. After six days' fighting, they occupied the entire country. The only Allied troops in the area were the 2nd Battalion of the 15th Punjab Regiment based at Kuching, Sarawak.[83]
Once the Japanese occupied Brunei, they made an agreement with
The Sultan retained his throne and was given a pension and honours by the Japanese. During the later part of the occupation, he resided at Tantuya,
The British had anticipated a Japanese attack, but lacked the resources to defend the area because of their engagement in the war in Europe. The troops from the Punjab Regiment filled in the
During the occupation, the Japanese had their language taught in schools, and Government officers were required to learn Japanese. The local currency was replaced by what was to become known as
The airport runway was constructed by the Japanese during the occupation, and in 1943 Japanese naval units were based in Brunei Bay and Labuan. The naval base was destroyed by Allied bombing, but the airport runway survived. The facility was developed as a public airport. In 1944 the Allies began a bombing campaign against the occupying Japanese, which destroyed much of the town and Kuala Belait, but missed Kampong Ayer.[86]
On 10 June 1945, the
Post-World War II
After World War II, a new government was formed in Brunei under the British Military Administration (BMA). It consisted mainly of Australian officers and servicemen.[87] The administration of Brunei was passed to the Civil Administration on 6 July 1945. The Brunei State Council was also revived that year.[88] The BMA was tasked to revive the Bruneian economy, which was extensively damaged by the Japanese during their occupation. They also had to put out the fires on the wells of Seria, which had been set by the Japanese prior to their defeat.[88]
Before 1941, the Governor of the Straits Settlements, based in Singapore, was responsible for the duties of British High Commissioner for Brunei,
In 1959, a new constitution was written declaring Brunei a self-governing state, while its foreign affairs, security, and defence remained the responsibility of the United Kingdom.
Brunei gained its independence from the United Kingdom on 1 January 1984.[91] The official National Day, which celebrates the country's independence, is held by tradition on 23 February.[93]
Writing of the Constitution
In July 1953, Sultan
On 29 September 1959, the Constitution Agreement was signed in Brunei Town. The agreement was signed by Sultan Omar Ali Saifuddien III and Sir Robert Scott, the Commissioner-General for Southeast Asia. It included the following provisions:[75]
- The Sultan was made the Supreme Head of State.
- Brunei was responsible for its internal administration.
- The British Government was responsible for foreign and defence affairs only.
- The post of Resident was abolished and replaced by a British High Commissioner.
Five councils were established:[95]
- The Executive Council
- The Legislative Council of Brunei
- The Privy Council
- The Council of Succession
- The State Religious Council
National development plans
A series of National Development Plans was initiated by the 28th Sultan of Brunei, Omar Ali Saifuddien III.
The first was introduced in 1953.
The plan also aided the development of public education. By 1958, expenditure on education totalled at $4 million.[97] Communications were improved, as new roads were built and reconstruction at Berakas Airport was completed in 1954.[98]
The second National Development Plan was launched in 1962.[98] A major oil and gas field was discovered in 1963. Developments in the oil and gas sector have continued, and oil production has steadily increased since then.[99] The plan also promoted the production of meat and eggs for consumption by citizens. The fishing industry increased its output by 25% throughout the course of the plan. The deepwater port at Muara was also constructed during this period. Power requirements were met, and studies were made to provide electricity to rural areas.[99] Efforts were made to eradicate malaria, an endemic disease in the region, with the help of the World Health Organization. Malaria cases were reduced from 300 cases in 1953 to only 66 cases in 1959.[100] The death rate was reduced from 20 per thousand in 1947 to 11.3 per thousand in 1953.[100] Infectious disease has been prevented by public sanitation and improvement of drainage, and the provision of piped pure water to the population.[100]
Independence
On 14 November 1971, Sultan Hassanal Bolkiah left for London to discuss matters regarding the amendments to the 1959 constitution. A new agreement was signed on 23 November 1971 with the British representative being Anthony Royle.[101]
Under this agreement, the following terms were agreed upon:
- Brunei was granted full internal self-government
- The UK would still be responsible for external affairs and defence.
- Brunei and the UK agreed to share the responsibility for security and defence.
This agreement also caused
On 7 January 1979, another treaty was signed between Brunei and the United Kingdom. It was signed with Lord Goronwy-Roberts being the representative of the UK. This agreement granted Brunei to take over international responsibilities as an independent nation. Britain agreed to assist Brunei in diplomatic matters. In May 1983, it was announced by the UK that the date of independence of Brunei would be 1 January 1984.[102]
On 31 December 1983, a mass gathering was held on main mosques on all four of the districts of the country and at midnight, on 1 January 1984, the Proclamation of Independence was read by Sultan Hassanal Bolkiah. The sultan subsequently assumed the title "
21st century
In October 2013, Sultan Hassanal Bolkiah announced his intention to impose
Geography
Brunei is a southeast Asian country consisting of two unconnected parts with a total area of 5,765 square kilometres (2,226 sq mi) on the island of Borneo. It has 161 kilometres (100 mi) of coastline next to the South China Sea, and it shares a 381 km (237 mi) border with Malaysia. It has 500 square kilometres (193 sq mi) of territorial waters, and a 200-nautical-mile (370 km; 230 mi) exclusive economic zone.[45]
About 97% of the population lives in the larger western part (
Most of Brunei is within the Borneo lowland rain forests ecoregion, which covers most of the island. Areas of mountain rain forests are located inland.[111]
The
Politics and government
Brunei's political system is governed by the constitution and the national tradition of the Malay Islamic Monarchy (
Under Brunei's 1959 constitution, His Majesty
Foreign relations
Until 1979, Brunei's foreign relations were managed by the UK government. After that, they were handled by the Brunei Diplomatic Service. After independence in 1984, this Service was upgraded to ministerial level and is now known as the Ministry of Foreign Affairs.[117]
Officially, Brunei's foreign policy is as follows:[118]
- Mutual respect of others' territorial sovereignty, integrity and independence;
- The maintenance of friendly relations among nations;
- Non-interference in the internal affairs of other countries; and
- The maintenance and the promotion of peace, security and stability in the region.
With its traditional ties with the United Kingdom, Brunei became the 49th member of the Commonwealth immediately on the day of its independence on 1 January 1984.[119] As one of its first initiatives toward improved regional relations, Brunei joined ASEAN on 7 January 1984, becoming the sixth member. To achieve recognition of its sovereignty and independence, it joined the United Nations as a full member on 21 September of that same year.[120]
As an Islamic country, Brunei became a full member of the Organisation of the Islamic Conference (now the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation) in January 1984 at the Fourth Islamic Summit held in Morocco.[121]
After its accession to the
Brunei shares a close relationship with
Brunei is one of many nations to lay claim to some of the disputed Spratly Islands.[126] The status of Limbang as part of Sarawak has been disputed by Brunei since the area was first annexed in 1890.[126] The issue was reportedly settled in 2009, with Brunei agreeing to accept the border in exchange for Malaysia giving up claims to oil fields in Bruneian waters.[127] The Brunei government denies this and says that their claim on Limbang was never dropped.[128][129]
Brunei was the chair for ASEAN in 2013.[130] It also hosted the ASEAN summit on that same year.[131]
Defence
Brunei maintains three infantry battalions stationed around the country.[91] The Brunei navy has several "Ijtihad"-class patrol boats purchased from a German manufacturer. The United Kingdom also maintains a base in Seria, the centre of the oil industry in Brunei. A Gurkha battalion consisting of 1,500 personnel is stationed there.[91] United Kingdom military personnel are stationed there under a defence agreement signed between the two countries.[91]
A Bell 212 operated by the air force crashed in Kuala Belait on 20 July 2012 with the loss of 12 of the 14 crew on board. The cause of the accident has yet to be ascertained.[132] The crash is the worst aviation incident in the history of Brunei.
The Army is currently acquiring new equipment,
Brunei's Legislative Council proposed an increase of the defence budget for the 2016–17 fiscal year of about five per cent to 564 million Brunei dollars ($408 million). This amounts to about ten per cent of the state's total national yearly expenditure and represents around 2.5 per cent of GDP.[135]
Administrative divisions
Brunei is divided into four
Each district is divided into several mukims. Altogether there are 39 mukims in Brunei. Each mukim encompasses several villages (kampung or kampong).
Bandar Seri Begawan and towns in the country (except
A district and its constituent mukims and villages are administered by a District Office (Jabatan Daerah). Meanwhile, municipal areas are governed by Municipal Departments (Jabatan Bandaran). Both District Offices and Municipal Departments are government departments under the Ministry of Home Affairs.
Legal system
Brunei has numerous courts in its judicial branch. The highest court, though subject in civil cases to the appellate jurisdiction of the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council,[136] is the Supreme Court, which consists of the Court of Appeal and High Court. Both of these have a chief justice and two judges.[45]
Women and children
The U.S. Department of State has stated that discrimination against women is a problem in Brunei.[137] The law prohibits sexual harassment and stipulates that whoever assaults or uses criminal force, intending thereby to outrage or knowing it is likely to outrage the modesty of a person, shall be punished with imprisonment for as much as five years and caning. The law stipulates imprisonment of up to 30 years, and caning with not fewer than 12 strokes for rape. The law does not criminalise spousal rape; it explicitly states that sexual intercourse by a man with his wife, as long as she is not under 13 years of age, is not rape. Protections against sexual assault by a spouse are provided under the amended Islamic Family Law Order 2010 and Married Women Act Order 2010. The penalty for breaching a protection order is a fine not exceeding BN$2,000 or imprisonment not exceeding six months. By law, sexual intercourse with a female under 14 years of age constitutes rape and is punishable by imprisonment for not less than eight years and not more than 30 years and not less than 12 strokes of the cane. The intent of the law is to protect girls from exploitation through prostitution and "other immoral purposes", including pornography.[137]
Bruneian citizenship is derived through parents' nationality rather than jus soli. Parents with stateless status are required to apply for a special pass for a child born in the country. Failure to register a child may make it difficult to enroll the child in school.
LGBT rights
Male and female homosexuality is illegal in Brunei. Sexual relations between men are punishable by death or whipping; sex between women is punishable by caning or imprisonment.
In May 2019, the Brunei government extended its existing moratorium on the death penalty to the Sharia criminal code as well that made homosexual acts punishable with death by stoning.[138]
In 2019, Brunei announced that it would no longer be implementing the second phase of its controversial sharia penal code. The code, which was first introduced in 2014, included a range of punishments for crimes such as theft, drug offences, and same-sex relationships, including amputation and death by stoning.
The decision to halt the implementation of the second phase of the code came after significant international backlash and pressure from countries and human rights organizations, who criticized the harsh punishments as inhumane and a violation of human rights.
The government of Brunei stated that the decision was made in order to maintain peace and stability in the country, and to avoid any negative impact on the economy and reputation of the country. The Sultan of Brunei, Hassanal Bolkiah, also issued a statement saying that the country would continue to "strengthen and improve" its legal system in line with international norms and best practices.
It is worth mentioning that the first phase of the sharia penal code, which includes fines and imprisonment for offenses such as failure to attend Friday prayers and consuming alcohol, remains in place.
Religious rights
In The Laws of Brunei, the right of non-Muslims to practice their faith is guaranteed by the 1959 Constitution. However, celebrations and prayers must be confined to places of worship and private residences.[139] Upon adopting Sharia Penal Code, the Ministry of Religious Affairs banned Christmas decorations in public places, but did not forbid celebration of Christmas in places of worship and private premises.[140] On 25 December 2015, 4,000 out of 18,000 estimated local Catholics attended the mass of Christmas Day and Christmas Eve.[139] In 2015, the then-head of the Catholic Church in Brunei told The Brunei Times, "To be quite honest there has been no change for us this year; no new restrictions have been laid down, although we fully respect and adhere to the existing regulations that our celebrations and worship be [confined] to the compounds of the church and private residences".[139]
Brunei's revised penal code came into force in phases, commencing on 22 April 2014 with offences punishable by fines or imprisonment.
Animal rights
Brunei is the first country in Asia to have banned shark finning nationwide.[144]
Brunei has retained most of its forests, compared to its neighbours that share Borneo island. There is a public campaign calling to protect pangolins which are considered a threatened treasure in Brunei.[145]
Economy
Brunei has the second-highest
Substantial income from overseas investment supplements income from domestic production. Most of these investments are made by the Brunei Investment Agency, an arm of the Ministry of Finance.[91] The government provides for all medical services,[150] and subsidises rice[151] and housing.[91]
The national
Brunei depends heavily on imports such as agricultural products (e.g. rice, food products, livestock, etc.),[152] vehicles and electrical products from other countries.[153] Brunei imports 60% of its food; of that amount, around 75% come from other ASEAN countries.[152]
Brunei's leaders are concerned that increasing integration in the world economy will undermine internal
The government of Brunei has also promoted food self-sufficiency, especially in rice. Brunei renamed its Brunei Darussalam Rice 1 as Laila Rice during the launch of the "Padi Planting Towards Achieving Self-Sufficiency of Rice Production in Brunei Darussalam" ceremony at the Wasan padi fields in April 2009.[157] In August 2009, the Royal Family reaped the first few Laila padi stalks, after years of attempts to boost local rice production, a goal first articulated about half a century ago.[158] In July 2009 Brunei launched its national halal branding scheme, Brunei Halal, with a goal to export to foreign markets.[159]
In 2020, Brunei's electricity production was largely based on fossil fuels; renewable energy accounted for less than 1% of produced electricity in the country.[160]
Infrastructure
As of 2019, the country's road network constituted a total length of 3,713.57 kilometres (2,307.51 mi), out of which 86.8% were
Brunei is accessible by air, sea, and land transport. Brunei International Airport is the main entry point to the country. Royal Brunei Airlines[162] is the national carrier. There is another airfield, the Anduki Airfield, located in Seria. The ferry terminal at Muara services regular connections to Labuan (Malaysia). Speedboats provide passenger and goods transportation to the Temburong district.[163] The main highway running across Brunei is the Tutong-Muara Highway. The country's road network is well developed. Brunei has one main sea port located at Muara.[91]
The airport in Brunei is currently being extensively upgraded.[164] Changi Airport International is the consultant working on this modernisation, which planned cost is currently $150 million.[165][166] This project is slated to add 14,000 square metres (150,000 sq ft) of new floorspace and includes a new terminal and arrival hall.[167] With the completion of this project, the annual passenger capacity of the airport is expected to double from 1.5 to 3 million.[165]
With one private car for every 2.09 persons, Brunei has one of the highest car ownership rates in the world. This has been attributed to the absence of a comprehensive transport system, low import tax, and low unleaded petrol price of B$0.53 per litre.[114]
A new 30-kilometre (19 mi) roadway
Banking
Bank of China received permission to open a branch in Brunei in April 2016. Citibank, which entered in 1972, closed its operations in Brunei in 2014. HSBC, which had entered in 1947, closed its operation in Brunei in November 2017.[171] May Bank of Malaysia, RHB Bank of Malaysia, Standard Chartered Bank of United Kingdom, United Overseas Bank of Singapore and Bank of China are currently operating in Brunei.
Demographics
Ethnicities indigenous to Brunei include the
.The population of Brunei in 2021 was 445,373,
Religion
Languages
The official
The principal spoken language is Melayu Brunei (Brunei Malay). Brunei Malay is rather divergent from standard Malay and the rest of the Malay dialects, being about 84% cognate with standard Malay,[180] and is mostly mutually intelligible with it.[181]
English is widely used as a business and official language and it is spoken by a majority of the population in Brunei. English is used in business as a working language and as the language of instruction from primary to tertiary education.[182][183][184][185]
Chinese languages are also widely spoken, and the Chinese minority in Brunei speaks a number of varieties of Chinese.
Arabic is the religious language of Muslims and is taught in schools, particularly religious schools, and also in institutes of higher learning. As of 2004, there are six Arabic schools and one religious teachers' college in Brunei. A majority of Brunei's Muslim population has had some form of formal or informal education in the reading, writing and pronunciation of the Arabic language as part of their religious education.
Other languages and dialects spoken include
Culture
The culture of Brunei is predominantly
As a Sharia country, the sale and public consumption of alcohol is banned.[188] Non-Muslims are allowed to bring in a limited amount of alcohol from their point of embarkation overseas for their own private consumption.[114]
Media
Media in Brunei are said to be pro-government; press criticism of the government and monarchy is rare. The country ranks "Not Free" in media by Freedom House.[189] Nonetheless, the press is not overtly hostile toward alternative viewpoints and is not restricted to publishing only articles regarding the government. The government allowed a printing and publishing company, Brunei Press PLC, to form in 1953. The company continues to print the English daily Borneo Bulletin. This paper began as a weekly community paper and became a daily in 1990[114] Apart from The Borneo Bulletin, there is also the Media Permata and Pelita Brunei, the local Malay newspapers which are circulated daily. The Brunei Times is another English independent newspaper published in Brunei since 2006.[190]
The Brunei government, through state broadcaster Radio Television Brunei (RTB), owns and operates three television channels with the introduction of digital TV using DVB-T (RTB Perdana, RTB Aneka and RTB Sukmaindera) and five radio stations (National FM, Pilihan FM, Nur Islam FM, Harmony FM and Pelangi FM). A private company has made cable television available (Astro-Kristal) as well as one private radio station, Kristal FM.[114] It also has an online campus radio station, UBD FM, that streams from its first university, Universiti Brunei Darussalam.[191]
Sport
The most popular sport in Brunei is association football. The Brunei national football team joined FIFA in 1969, but has not had much success. Brunei's top football league is the Brunei Super League, which is managed by the Football Association of Brunei Darussalam (FABD). The nation has its own martial arts called "Silat Suffian Bela Diri".[192]
Brunei debuted
Brunei has had slightly more success
See also
Notes
- ^ There is a Legislative Council, which has no legislative power.[6] As its role is only consultative it is not considered to be a legislature.[7][8]
- ^ /bruːˈnaɪ/ ⓘ broo-NY, Malay: [brunaɪ] ⓘ
- ^ In Malay, the official name of Brunei is Negara Brunei Darussalam, literal meaning "Nation of Brunei, the Abode of Peace". However, in English, the official name of the country is always written as Brunei Darussalam.[13][14]
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- ^ a b c d "Population by Religion, Sex and Census Year". Archived from the original on 1 April 2021. Retrieved 17 March 2021.
- ^ "Brunei Darussalam" (PDF). United Nations (Human Rights Council): 4. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 27 August 2022.
- ^ "Brunei: Freedom in the World 2020 Country Report". Freedom House.
- ^ "Brunei". United States Department of State.
- ^ a b "Population". Department of Economic Planning and Development. Archived from the original on 20 March 2017. Retrieved 12 December 2017.
- ^ a b c d "World Economic Outlook Database, October 2023 Edition. (Brunei)". IMF.org. International Monetary Fund. 10 October 2023. Retrieved 17 October 2023.
- ^ "Human Development Report 2023/2024" (PDF). United Nations Development Programme. 13 March 2024. Archived (PDF) from the original on 13 March 2024. Retrieved 13 March 2024.
- ^ "Delegation Record for .BN". IANA. Retrieved 6 November 2015.
- ^ "Home - gov.bn". Archived from the original on 4 September 2018.
- ^ "Embassy of Brunei Darussalam to the United States of America". Brunei Embassy. Archived from the original on 6 December 2000.
- ^ Peter Haggett (ed). Encyclopedia of World Geography, Volume 1, Marshall Cavendish, 2001, p. 2913.
- ^ Abinales, Patricio N. and Donna J. Amoroso, State and Society in the Philippines. Maryland: Rowman and Littlefield, 2005.
- ^ History for Brunei Darussalam 2009, p. 26.
- ^ de Vienne 2016, p. 27.
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- ^ Brunei Rediscovered: A Survey of Early Times By Robert Nicholl p. 35 citing Ferrand. Relations, page 564–65. Tibbets, Arabic Texts, pg 47.
- ^ Brunei Rediscovered: A Survey of Early Times By Robert Nicholl p. 38 citing Ferrand. Relations. Page 344.
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- ^ Coedes, Indianized States, Page 128, 132.
- ^ History for Brunei Darussalam 2009, p. 43.
- ^ Journal of Southeast Asian Studies Vol. 14, No. 1 (Mar., 1983) Page 40. Published by: Cambridge University Press.
- ^ Reading Song-Ming Records on the Pre-colonial History of the Philippines By Wang Zhenping Page 256.
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- ^ Ming shi, 325, p. 8411, p. 8422.
- ^ History for Brunei Darussalam 2009, p. 44.
- ^ History for Brunei Darussalam 2009, p. 45.
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- ^ Tom Harrisson, Brunei's Two (or More) Capitals, Brunei Museum Journal, Vol. 3, No. 4 (1976), p. 77 sq.
- ^ Kayadibi, Saim. "Ottoman Connections to the Malay World: Islam, Law and Society", (Kuala Lumpur: The Other Press, 2011)
- ^ Melchor Davalos to the King, Manila 20 June 1585, in Lewis Hanke, Cuerpo de Documentos del Siglo XVI sobre los derechos de España en las Indias y las Filipinas (Mexico 1977), pp 72, 75.
- ^ Melo Alip 1964, pp. 201, 317
- ^ United States War Dept 1903, p. 379
- ^ McAmis 2002, p. 33
- ^ "Letter from Francisco de Sande to Felipe II, 1578". filipiniana.net. Archived from the original on 27 March 2012. Retrieved 17 October 2009.
- ^ Letter from Fajardo to Felipe III From Manila, August 15 1620. (From the Spanish Archives of the Indies)("The infantry does not amount to two hundred men, in three companies. If these men were that number, and Spaniards, it would not be so bad; but, although I have not seen them, because they have not yet arrived here, I am told that they are, as at other times, for the most part boys, mestizos, and mulattoes, with some Indians (Native Americans). There is no little cause for regret in the great sums that reënforcements of such men waste for, and cost, your Majesty. I cannot see what betterment there will be until your Majesty shall provide it, since I do not think, that more can be done in Nueva Spaña, although the viceroy must be endeavoring to do so, as he is ordered.")
- ISBN 9780521663700.
- ^ Cambridge illustrated atlas, warfare: Renaissance to revolution, 1492–1792 by Jeremy Black p. 16 [1]
- ^ Frankham 2008, p. 278
- ^ Atiyah 2002, p. 71
- ^ Saunders 2002, pp. 54–60
- ^ Saunders 2002, p. 57
- ^ Martinez, Manuel F. Assassinations & conspiracies : from Rajah Humabon to Imelda Marcos. Manila: Anvil Publishing, 2002.
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His Highness will receive a British Officer, to be styled Resident, and will provide a suitable residence for him. The Resident will be the Agent and Representative of His Britannic Majesty's Government under the High Commissioner for the British Protectorates in Borneo, and his advice must be taken and acted upon on all questions in Brunei
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External links
Government
- Prime Minister's Office of Brunei Darussalam Archived 25 May 2019 at the Wayback Machine website
- Chief of State and Cabinet Members Archived 16 October 2020 at the Wayback Machine
General information
- Brunei. The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency.
- Brunei profile from the BBC News
- Brunei at Encyclopædia Britannica
- Wikimedia Atlas of Brunei
- Key Development Forecasts for Brunei from International Futures
Travel
- Brunei Tourism website (archived 9 May 2007)