Brussels

Coordinates: 50°50′48″N 04°21′09″E / 50.84667°N 4.35250°E / 50.84667; 4.35250
Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
This article is about the Brussels-Capital Region. For the municipality within it, which is the de jure national capital, see City of Brussels. For other places, see Brussels (disambiguation).

Brussels
  • Bruxelles (
    Region
  • Brussels-Capital Region
  • Région de Bruxelles-Capitale (French)
  • Brussels Hoofdstedelijk Gewest (Dutch)
A collage with several views of Brussels, Top: Northern Quarter business district, 2nd left: Flower Carpet event at the Grand-Place/Grote Markt, 2nd right: Town Hall and Mont des Arts/Kunstberg area, 3rd: Parc du Cinquantenaire/Jubelpark, 4th left: Manneken Pis, 4th middle: Cathedral of St. Michael and St. Gudula, 4th right: Congress Column, Bottom: Royal Palace
Region
18 June 1989
Founded byCharles, Duke of Lower Lorraine
CapitalCity of Brussels
Municipalities
List
Government
 • Executive
GeoTLD
.brussels
HDI (2019)0.948[7]
very high · 1st of 11
Websitebe.brussels

Brussels (

enclave) and the Walloon Region.[13][14]

Brussels is the most densely populated region in Belgium, and although it has the highest

GDP per capita,[15] it has the lowest available income per household.[16] The Brussels Region covers 162 km2 (63 sq mi), a relatively small area compared to the two other regions, and has a population of over 1.2 million.[17] The five times larger metropolitan area of Brussels comprises over 2.5 million people, which makes it the largest in Belgium.[18][19][20] It is also part of a large conurbation extending towards the cities of Ghent, Antwerp, and Leuven and the province of Walloon Brabant, in total home to over 5 million people.[21]

Brussels grew from a small rural settlement on the river

headquarters of NATO are also located in Brussels.[27][28]

As the economic capital of Belgium and a top financial centre of Western Europe with

railway stations are the largest and busiest in the country.[34][35]

Historically Dutch-speaking, Brussels saw a

language shift to French from the late 19th century.[36] Nowadays, the Brussels-Capital Region is officially bilingual in French and Dutch,[37][38] although French is the majority language and lingua franca with over 90% of the inhabitants being able to speak it.[39][40] Brussels is also increasingly becoming multilingual. English is spoken as a second language by nearly a third of the population and many migrants and expatriates speak other languages as well.[39][41]

Brussels is known for its cuisine and gastronomic offer (including its local waffle, its chocolate, its French fries and its numerous types of beers),[42] as well as its historical and architectural landmarks; some of them are registered as UNESCO World Heritage Sites.[43] Principal attractions include its historic Grand-Place/Grote Markt (main square), Manneken Pis, the Atomium, and cultural institutions such as La Monnaie/De Munt and the Museums of Art and History. Due to its long tradition of Belgian comics, Brussels is also hailed as a capital of the comic strip.[1][44]

Toponymy

See also: Names of European cities in different languages (B)

Etymology

The most common theory of the origin of the name Brussels is that it derives from the

Saint Vindicianus, the Bishop of Cambrai, made the first recorded reference to the place Brosella in 695,[47] when it was still a hamlet. The names of all the municipalities in the Brussels-Capital Region are also of Dutch origin, except for Evere, which is Celtic
.

Pronunciation

In French, Bruxelles is pronounced [bʁysɛl] ⓘ (the x is pronounced /s/, like in English, and the final s is silent) and in Dutch, Brussel is pronounced [ˈbrʏsəl] ⓘ. Inhabitants of Brussels are known in French as Bruxellois (pronounced [bʁysɛlwa] ⓘ) and in Dutch as Brusselaars (pronounced [ˈbrʏsəlaːrs]). In the Brabantian dialect of Brussels (known as Brusselian, and also sometimes referred to as Marols or Marollien),[48] they are called Brusseleers or Brusseleirs.[49]

Originally, the written x noted the group /ks/. In the Belgian French pronunciation as well as in Dutch, the k eventually disappeared and z became s, as reflected in the current Dutch spelling, whereas in the more conservative French form, the spelling remained.[50] The pronunciation /ks/ in French only dates from the 18th century, but this modification did not affect the traditional Brussels usage. In France, the pronunciations [bʁyksɛl] ⓘ and [bʁyksɛlwa] (for bruxellois) are often heard, but are rather rare in Belgium.[51]

History

For a chronological guide, see Timeline of Brussels.
Historical affiliations

County of Leuven
c. 1000–1183
alt Duchy of Brabant 1183–1430
 Burgundian Netherlands 1430–1482
Habsburg Netherlands 1482–1556
Spanish Netherlands 1556–1714
 Austrian Netherlands 1714–1746
 Kingdom of France 1746–1749
 Austrian Netherlands 1749–1794
 French First Republic 1795–1804
 First French Empire 1804–1815
Netherlands United Kingdom of the Netherlands 1815–1830
Belgium Kingdom of Belgium 1830–present

Early history

Charles of Lorraine founded what would become Brussels, c. 979.

The history of Brussels is closely linked to that of Western Europe. Traces of human settlement go back to the Stone Age, with vestiges and place-names related to the civilisation of megaliths, dolmens and standing stones (Plattesteen near the Grand-Place/Grote Markt and Tomberg in Woluwe-Saint-Lambert, for example). During late antiquity, the region was home to Roman occupation, as attested by archaeological evidence discovered on the current site of Tour & Taxis, north-west of the Pentagon (Brussels' city centre).[52][53] Following the decline of the Western Roman Empire, it was incorporated into the Frankish Empire.

According to local legend, the origin of the settlement which was to become Brussels lies in Saint Gaugericus' construction of a chapel on an island in the river Senne around 580.[54] The official founding of Brussels is usually said to be around 979, when Duke Charles of Lower Lorraine transferred the relics of the martyr Saint Gudula from Moorsel (located in today's province of East Flanders) to Saint Gaugericus' chapel. When King Lothair II appointed the same Charles (his brother) to become Duke of Lower Lotharingia in 977, Charles ordered the construction of the city's first permanent fortification, doing so on that same island.

Middle Ages

Sablon/Zavel areas), where there was a smaller risk of floods. As it grew to a population of around 30,000, the surrounding marshes were drained to allow for further expansion. Around this time, work began on what is now the Cathedral of St. Michael and St. Gudula (1225), replacing an older Romanesque church. In 1183, the Counts of Leuven became Dukes of Brabant. Brabant, unlike the county of Flanders, was not fief of the king of France but was incorporated into the Holy Roman Empire
.

In the early 13th century, the

a second set of walls was erected between 1356 and 1383. Traces of these walls can still be seen, although the Small Ring
, a series of boulevards bounding the historical city centre, follows their former course.

Early modern

View of Brussels, c. 1610

In the 15th century, the marriage between heiress

Habsburg sovereignty. Brabant was integrated into this composite state, and Brussels flourished as the Princely Capital of the prosperous Burgundian Netherlands, also known as the Seventeen Provinces. After the death of Mary in 1482, her son Philip the Handsome
succeeded as Duke of Burgundy and Brabant.

Philip died in 1506, and he was succeeded by his son

Habsburg Empire "on which the sun never sets" with Brussels serving as one of his main capitals.[56][57] It was in the Coudenberg Palace that Charles V was declared of age in 1515, and it was there in 1555 that he abdicated all of his possessions and passed the Habsburg Netherlands to King Philip II of Spain.[58] This impressive palace, famous all over Europe, had greatly expanded since it had first become the seat of the Dukes of Brabant, but it was destroyed by fire in 1731.[59][60]

The Grand-Place after the 1695 bombardment by the French army

In the 16th and 17th centuries, Brussels was a centre for the lace industry. In addition, Brussels tapestry hung on the walls of castles throughout Europe.[61][62] In 1695, during the Nine Years' War, King Louis XIV of France sent troops to bombard Brussels with artillery. Together with the resulting fire, it was the most destructive event in the entire history of Brussels. The Grand-Place was destroyed, along with 4,000 buildings—a third of all the buildings in the city. The reconstruction of the city centre, effected during subsequent years, profoundly changed its appearance and left numerous traces still visible today.[63]

Following the

Treaty of Utrecht in 1713, Spanish sovereignty over the Southern Netherlands was transferred to the Austrian branch of the House of Habsburg. This event started the era of the Austrian Netherlands. Brussels was captured by France in 1746, during the War of the Austrian Succession, but was handed back to Austria three years later. It remained with Austria until 1795, when the Southern Netherlands were captured and annexed by France, and the city became the capital of the department of the Dyle. The French rule ended in 1815, with the defeat of Napoleon on the battlefield of Waterloo, located south of today's Brussels-Capital Region.[64] With the Congress of Vienna, the Southern Netherlands joined the United Kingdom of the Netherlands, under King William I of Orange. The former Dyle department became the province of South Brabant
, with Brussels as its capital.

Late modern

Gustaf Wappers
, 1834

In 1830, the

La Muette de Portici at the Royal Theatre of La Monnaie.[65] The city became the capital and seat of government of the new nation. South Brabant was renamed simply Brabant, with Brussels as its administrative centre. On 21 July 1831, Leopold I, the first King of the Belgians
, ascended the throne, undertaking the destruction of the city walls and the construction of many buildings.

Following independence, Brussels underwent many more changes. It became a financial centre, thanks to the dozens of companies launched by the Société Générale de Belgique. The Industrial Revolution and the opening of the Brussels–Charleroi Canal in 1832 brought prosperity to the city through commerce and manufacturing.[66] The Free University of Brussels was established in 1834 and Saint-Louis University in 1858. In 1835, the first passenger railway built outside England linked the municipality of Molenbeek-Saint-Jean with Mechelen.[67]

The Place Royale/Koningsplein in the late 19th century

During the 19th century, the population of Brussels grew considerably; from about 80,000 to more than 625,000 people for the city and its surroundings. The Senne had become a serious

Palace of Justice (1883) and Saint Mary's Royal Church (1885) date from this period. This development continued throughout the reign of King Leopold II. The International Exposition of 1897 contributed to the promotion of the infrastructure. Among other things, the Palace of the Colonies, present-day Royal Museum for Central Africa, in the suburb of Tervuren, was connected to the capital by the construction of an 11 km-long (6.8 mi) grand alley
.

Brussels became one of the major European cities for the development of the Art Nouveau style in the 1890s and early 1900s. The architects Victor Horta, Paul Hankar, and Henry van de Velde were known for their designs, many of which survive today.[68]

20th century

The 1927 Solvay Conference in Brussels was the fifth world physics conference.

During the 20th century, the city hosted various fairs and conferences, including the Solvay Conference on Physics and on Chemistry, and three world's fairs: the Brussels International Exposition of 1910, the Brussels International Exposition of 1935 and the 1958 Brussels World's Fair (Expo 58). During World War I, Brussels was an occupied city, but German troops did not cause much damage. During World War II, it was again occupied by German forces, and spared major damage, before it was liberated by the British Guards Armoured Division on 3 September 1944. Brussels Airport, in the suburb of Zaventem, dates from the occupation.

British tanks arrive in Brussels on 4 September 1944, ending the German occupation

After World War II, Brussels underwent extensive modernisation. The construction of the North–South connection, linking the main railway stations in the city, was completed in 1952, while the first premetro (underground tram) service was launched in 1969,[69] and the first Metro line was opened in 1976.[70] Starting from the early 1960s, Brussels became the de facto capital of what would become the European Union (EU), and many modern offices were built. Development was allowed to proceed with little regard to the aesthetics of newer buildings, and numerous architectural landmarks were demolished to make way for newer buildings that often clashed with their surroundings, giving name to the process of Brusselisation.[71][72]

Contemporary

The Brussels-Capital Region was formed on 18 June 1989, after a constitutional reform in 1988.

yellow iris is the emblem of the region (referring to the presence of these flowers on the city's original site) and a stylised version is featured on its official flag.[74]

In recent years, Brussels has become an important venue for international events. In 2000, it was named European Capital of Culture alongside eight other European cities.[75] In 2013, the city was the site of the Brussels Agreement.[76] In 2014, it hosted the 40th G7 summit,[77] and in 2017, 2018 and 2021 respectively the 28th, 29th and 31st NATO Summits.[78][79][80]

suicide bombers killed, and 330 people were injured. It was the deadliest act of terrorism
in Belgium.

Geography

Location and topography

Further information: Geography of Belgium
A 2020 satellite image of the Greater Brussels area

Brussels lies in the north-central part of Belgium, about 110 km (68 mi) from the Belgian coast and about 180 km (110 mi) from Belgium's southern tip. It is located in the heartland of the Brabantian Plateau, about 45 km (28 mi) south of Antwerp (Flanders), and 50 km (31 mi) north of Charleroi (Wallonia). Its average elevation is 57 m (187 ft) above sea level, varying from a low point in the valley of the almost completely covered Senne, which cuts the Brussels-Capital Region from east to west, up to high points in the Sonian Forest, on its southeastern side. In addition to the Senne, tributary streams such as the Maalbeek and the Woluwe, to the east of the region, account for significant elevation differences. Brussels' central boulevards are 15 m (49 ft) above sea level.[81] Contrary to popular belief, the highest point (at 127.5 m (418 ft)) is not near the Place de l'Altitude Cent/Hoogte Honderdplein in Forest, but at the Drève des Deux Montages/Tweebergendreef in the Sonian Forest.[82]

Climate

Brussels experiences an oceanic climate (Köppen: Cfb) with warm summers and cool winters.[83] Proximity to coastal areas influences the area's climate by sending marine air masses from the Atlantic Ocean. Nearby wetlands also ensure a maritime temperate climate. On average (based on measurements in the period 1981–2010), there are approximately 135 days of rain per year in the Brussels-Capital Region. Snowfall is infrequent, averaging 24 days per year. The city also often experiences violent thunderstorms in summer months.

Climate data for Brussels-Capital Region (1981–2010)
Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year
Average high °C (°F) 5.9
(42.6) 		6.8
(44.2) 		10.5
(50.9) 		14.2
(57.6) 		18.3
(64.9) 		20.9
(69.6) 		23.3
(73.9) 		23.0
(73.4) 		19.5
(67.1) 		15.1
(59.2) 		9.8
(49.6) 		6.3
(43.3) 		14.5
(58.1)
Daily mean °C (°F) 3.2
(37.8) 		3.5
(38.3) 		6.5
(43.7) 		9.5
(49.1) 		13.5
(56.3) 		16.1
(61.0) 		18.4
(65.1) 		18.0
(64.4) 		14.9
(58.8) 		11.1
(52.0) 		6.8
(44.2) 		3.8
(38.8) 		10.4
(50.7)
Average low °C (°F) 0.7
(33.3) 		0.6
(33.1) 		2.9
(37.2) 		4.9
(40.8) 		8.7
(47.7) 		11.5
(52.7) 		13.6
(56.5) 		13.0
(55.4) 		10.5
(50.9) 		7.5
(45.5) 		4.5
(40.1) 		1.5
(34.7) 		6.7
(44.1)
Average precipitation mm (inches) 75.2
(2.96) 		61.6
(2.43) 		69.5
(2.74) 		51.0
(2.01) 		65.1
(2.56) 		72.1
(2.84) 		73.6
(2.90) 		76.8
(3.02) 		69.6
(2.74) 		75.0
(2.95) 		77.0
(3.03) 		81.4
(3.20) 		848.0
(33.39)
Average precipitation days (≥ 1 mm) 12.8 11.1 12.7 9.9 11.3 10.5 10.1 10.1 10.4 11.2 12.6 13.0 135.6
Mean monthly sunshine hours 58 75 119 168 199 193 205 194 143 117 65 47 1,583
Source: KMI/IRM[84]
Climate data for Uccle (Brussels-Capital Region) 1991–2020
Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year
Record high °C (°F) 15.3
(59.5) 		20.0
(68.0) 		24.2
(75.6) 		28.7
(83.7) 		34.1
(93.4) 		38.8
(101.8) 		39.7
(103.5) 		36.5
(97.7) 		34.9
(94.8) 		27.8
(82.0) 		20.6
(69.1) 		16.7
(62.1) 		39.7
(103.5)
Average high °C (°F) 6.1
(43.0) 		7.1
(44.8) 		10.9
(51.6) 		15.0
(59.0) 		18.4
(65.1) 		21.2
(70.2) 		23.2
(73.8) 		23.0
(73.4) 		19.5
(67.1) 		14.9
(58.8) 		9.9
(49.8) 		6.6
(43.9) 		14.7
(58.4)
Daily mean °C (°F) 3.7
(38.7) 		4.2
(39.6) 		7.1
(44.8) 		10.4
(50.7) 		13.9
(57.0) 		16.7
(62.1) 		18.7
(65.7) 		18.4
(65.1) 		15.2
(59.4) 		11.3
(52.3) 		7.2
(45.0) 		4.3
(39.7) 		10.9
(51.7)
Average low °C (°F) 1.4
(34.5) 		1.5
(34.7) 		3.5
(38.3) 		6.0
(42.8) 		9.2
(48.6) 		12.0
(53.6) 		14.1
(57.4) 		13.9
(57.0) 		11.3
(52.3) 		8.1
(46.6) 		4.6
(40.3) 		2.1
(35.8) 		7.3
(45.2)
Record low °C (°F) −21.1
(−6.0) 		−18.3
(−0.9) 		−13.6
(7.5) 		−5.7
(21.7) 		−2.2
(28.0) 		0.3
(32.5) 		4.4
(39.9) 		3.9
(39.0) 		0.0
(32.0) 		−6.8
(19.8) 		−12.8
(9.0) 		−17.7
(0.1) 		−21.1
(−6.0)
Average precipitation mm (inches) 75.5
(2.97) 		65.1
(2.56) 		59.3
(2.33) 		46.7
(1.84) 		59.7
(2.35) 		70.8
(2.79) 		76.9
(3.03) 		86.5
(3.41) 		65.3
(2.57) 		67.8
(2.67) 		76.2
(3.00) 		87.4
(3.44) 		837.2
(32.96)
Average precipitation days (≥ 0.1 mm) 18.9 16.9 15.7 13.1 14.7 14.1 14.3 14.3 14.1 16.1 18.3 19.4 189.9
Average snowy days 3.8 4.9 2.7 0.6 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 1.2 3.7 17
Average
relative humidity
(%) 		84.1 80.6 74.8 69.2 70.2 71.3 71.5 72.4 76.8 81.5 85.1 86.6 77.0
Mean monthly sunshine hours 59.1 72.9 125.8 171.3 198.3 199.3 203.2 192.4 154.4 112.6 65.8 48.6 1,603.7
Average ultraviolet index 1 1 3 4 6 7 6 6 4 2 1 1 4
Source 1: Royal Meteorological Institute[85][86]
Source 2: Weather Atlas;
VRT Nieuws[88]

Brussels as a capital

Despite its name, the Brussels-Capital Region is not the capital of

Belgian Constitution establishes that the capital of Belgium is the City of Brussels, the municipality in the region that is the city's core.[10]

The City of Brussels is the location of many national institutions. The

Royal Belgian Mint and the National Bank of Belgium
.

The City of Brussels is also the capital of both the French Community of Belgium[11] and the Flemish Community.[13] The Flemish Parliament and Flemish Government have their seats in Brussels,[89] and so do the Parliament of the French Community and the Government of the French Community.

The Royal Palace of Brussels, the official palace of the King and Queen of the Belgians

Municipalities

Main article: List of municipalities of the Brussels-Capital Region
French name Dutch name
Anderlecht Anderlecht Anderlecht
Auderghem Auderghem Oudergem
Berchem-Sainte-Agathe
Berchem-Sainte-Agathe
 Sint-Agatha-Berchem
Brussels Bruxelles-Ville Stad Brussel
Etterbeek Etterbeek Etterbeek
Evere Evere Evere
Forest, Belgium Forest Vorst
Ganshoren Ganshoren Ganshoren
Ixelles Ixelles Elsene
Jette Jette Jette
Koekelberg Koekelberg Koekelberg
Molenbeek-Saint-Jean Molenbeek-Saint-Jean Sint-Jans-Molenbeek
Saint-Gilles, Belgium Saint-Gilles Sint-Gillis
Saint-Josse-ten-Noode Saint-Josse-ten-Noode Sint-Joost-ten-Node
Schaerbeek Schaerbeek Schaarbeek
Uccle Uccle Ukkel
Watermael-Boitsfort Watermael-Boitsfort Watermaal-Bosvoorde
Woluwe-Saint-Lambert Woluwe-Saint-Lambert Sint-Lambrechts-Woluwe
Woluwe-Saint-Pierre Woluwe-Saint-Pierre Sint-Pieters-Woluwe

The 19

Region are political subdivisions with individual responsibilities for the handling of local level duties, such as law enforcement and the upkeep of schools and roads within its borders.[90][91] Municipal administration is also conducted by a mayor, a council, and an executive.[91]

In 1831, Belgium was divided into 2,739 municipalities, including the 19 in the Brussels-Capital Region.[92] Unlike most of the municipalities in Belgium, the ones located in the Brussels-Capital Region were not merged with others during mergers occurring in 1964, 1970, and 1975.[92] However, several municipalities outside the Brussels-Capital Region have been merged with the City of Brussels throughout its history, including Laeken, Haren and Neder-Over-Heembeek in 1921.[93]

The largest municipality in area and population is the City of Brussels, covering 32.6 km2 (12.6 sq mi) and with 145,917 inhabitants; the least populous is Koekelberg with 18,541 inhabitants. The smallest in area is Saint-Josse-ten-Noode, which is only 1.1 km2 (0.4 sq mi), but still has the highest population density in the region, with 20,822/km2 (53,930/sq mi). Watermael-Boitsfort has the lowest population density in the region, with 1,928/km2 (4,990/sq mi).

There is much controversy on the division of 19 municipalities for a highly urbanised region, which is considered as (half of) one city by most people. Some politicians mock the "19 baronies" and want to merge the municipalities under one city council and one mayor.[94][95] That would lower the number of politicians needed to govern Brussels, and centralise the power over the city to make decisions easier, thus reduce the overall running costs. The current municipalities could be transformed into districts with limited responsibilities, similar to the current structure of Antwerp or to structures of other capitals like the boroughs in London or arrondissements in Paris, to keep politics close enough to the citizen.[96]

In early 2016,

Paris and Brussels attacks.[97][98][99][100][101]

Brussels-Capital Region

Regions of Belgium:
   Flemish Region
  Brussels-Capital Region
   Walloon Region

Political status

See also:
enclave in the monolingual Flemish Region. Regions are one component of Belgium's institutions; the three communities being the other component. Brussels' inhabitants deal with either the French Community or the Flemish Community for matters such as culture and education, as well as a Common Community for competencies which do not belong exclusively to either Community, such as healthcare and social welfare
.

Since the split of

governor of Brussels-Capital and some aides, analogously to provinces. Its status is roughly akin to that of a federal district
.

Institutions

Main articles:
Government of the Brussels-Capital Region and Parliament of the Brussels-Capital Region
The Brussels Parliament building, housing the Brussels Regional Parliament

The Brussels-Capital Region is governed by a parliament of 89 members (72 French-speaking, 17 Dutch-speaking—parties are organised on a linguistic basis) and an eight-member regional cabinet consisting of a minister-president, four ministers and three state secretaries. By law, the cabinet must comprise two French-speaking and two Dutch-speaking ministers, one Dutch-speaking secretary of state and two French-speaking secretaries of state. The minister-president does not count against the language quota, but in practice every minister-president has been a bilingual francophone. The regional parliament can enact ordinances (French: ordonnances, Dutch: ordonnanties), which have equal status as a national legislative act.

Nineteen of the 72 French-speaking members of the Brussels Parliament are also members of the

Parliament of the French Community of Belgium, and, until 2004, this was also the case for six Dutch-speaking members, who were at the same time members of the Flemish Parliament
. Now, people voting for a Flemish party have to vote separately for 6 directly elected members of the Flemish Parliament.

Agglomeration of Brussels

Before the creation of the Brussels-Capital Region, regional competences in the 19 municipalities were performed by the Brussels Agglomeration. The Brussels Agglomeration was an administrative division established in 1971. This decentralised administrative public body also assumed jurisdiction over areas which, elsewhere in Belgium, were exercised by municipalities or provinces.[102]

The Brussels Agglomeration had a separate legislative council, but the by-laws enacted by it did not have the status of a legislative act. The only election of the council took place on 21 November 1971. The working of the council was subject to many difficulties caused by the linguistic and socio-economic tensions between the two communities.

After the creation of the Brussels-Capital Region, the Brussels Agglomeration was never formally abolished, although it no longer has a purpose.

French and Flemish communities

Main articles: French Community Commission and Flemish Community Commission
Communities of Belgium:
   Flemish Community / Dutch language area
  Flemish & French Community / bilingual language area
   French Community / French language area
   German-speaking Community / German language area

The French Community and the Flemish Community exercise their powers in Brussels through two community-specific public authorities: the French Community Commission (French: Commission communautaire française or COCOF) and the Flemish Community Commission (Dutch: Vlaamse Gemeenschapscommissie or VGC). These two bodies each have an assembly composed of the members of each linguistic group of the Parliament of the Brussels-Capital Region. They also have a board composed of the ministers and secretaries of state of each linguistic group in the Government of the Brussels-Capital Region.

The French Community Commission has also another capacity: some legislative powers of the French Community have been devolved to the Walloon Region (for the French language area of Belgium) and to the French Community Commission (for the bilingual language area).[103] The Flemish Community, however, did the opposite; it merged the Flemish Region into the Flemish Community.[104] This is related to different conceptions in the two communities, one focusing more on the Communities and the other more on the Regions, causing an asymmetrical federalism. Because of this devolution, the French Community Commission can enact decrees, which are legislative acts.

Common Community Commission

A bi-communitarian public authority, the Common Community Commission (French: Commission communautaire commune, COCOM, Dutch: Gemeenschappelijke Gemeenschapscommissie, GGC) also exists. Its assembly is composed of the members of the regional parliament, and its board are the ministers—not the secretaries of state—of the region, with the minister-president not having the right to vote. This commission has two capacities: it is a decentralised administrative public body, responsible for implementing cultural policies of common interest. It can give subsidies and enact by-laws. In another capacity, it can also enact ordinances, which have equal status as a national legislative act, in the field of the welfare powers of the communities: in the Brussels-Capital Region, both the French Community and the Flemish Community can exercise powers in the field of welfare, but only in regard to institutions that are unilingual (for example, a private French-speaking retirement home or the Dutch-speaking hospital of the Vrije Universiteit Brussel). The Common Community Commission is responsible for policies aiming directly at private persons or at bilingual institutions (for example, the centres for social welfare of the 19 municipalities). Its ordinances have to be enacted with a majority in both linguistic groups. Failing such a majority, a new vote can be held, where a majority of at least one third in each linguistic group is sufficient.

Brussels and the European Union

Main article: Brussels and the European Union
Aerial view of Brussels' European Quarter, hosting most of the European Union (EU)'s institutions

Brussels serves as de facto capital of the European Union (EU), hosting the major political institutions of the Union.[23] The EU has not declared a capital formally, though the Treaty of Amsterdam formally gives Brussels the seat of the European Commission (the executive branch of government) and the Council of the European Union (a legislative institution made up from executives of member states).[105][full citation needed][106][full citation needed] It locates the formal seat of European Parliament in Strasbourg, where votes take place, with the council, on the proposals made by the commission. However, meetings of political groups and committee groups are formally given to Brussels, along with a set number of plenary sessions. Three quarters of Parliament sessions now take place at its Brussels hemicycle.[107] Between 2002 and 2004, the European Council also fixed its seat in the city.[108] In 2014, the Union hosted a G7 summit in the city.[77]

The Place du Luxembourg/Luxemburgplein with the European Parliament in the background

Brussels, along with

Luxembourg and Strasbourg, began to host European institutions in 1957, soon becoming the centre of activities, as the Commission and Council based their activities in what has become the European Quarter, in the east of the city.[105] Early building in Brussels was sporadic and uncontrolled, with little planning. The current major buildings are the Berlaymont building of the commission, symbolic of the quarter as a whole, the Europa building of the Council and the Espace Léopold of the Parliament.[106] Today, the presence has increased considerably, with the Commission alone occupying 865,000 m2 (9,310,000 sq ft) within the European Quarter (a quarter of the total office space in Brussels).[23] The concentration and density has caused concern that the presence of the institutions has created a ghetto effect in that part of the city.[109] However, the European presence has contributed significantly to the importance of Brussels as an international centre.[110]

Brussels and the European Union
The Berlaymont building (European Commission)
The Europa building (European Council)
The Espace Léopold buildings (European Parliament)

International institutions

Brussels has, since

29 embassies and brings together over 4,500 staff from allied nations, their militaries, and civil service personnel. Many other international organisations such as the World Customs Organization and Eurocontrol, as well as international corporations, have their main institutions in the city. In addition, the main international trade union confederations have their headquarters there: the European Trade Union Confederation (ETUC), the International Confederation of Free Trade Unions (ICFTU) and the World Confederation of Labour
(WCL).

Brussels is third in the number of international conferences it hosts,

NGOs.[115][116]

North Atlantic Treaty Organisation

Main article: NATO headquarters
Flags of NATO member states wave at the entrance of NATO's headquarters in Haren

The

through embassies in Belgium. Since 1949, a number of NATO Summits have been held in Brussels,[118] the most recent taking place in June 2021.[80] The organisation's political and administrative headquarters are located on the Boulevard Léopold III/Leopold III-laan in Haren, on the north-eastern perimeter of the City of Brussels.[119] A new €750 million headquarters building begun in 2010 and was completed in 2017.[120]

Eurocontrol

Main article: Eurocontrol
Headquarters of Eurocontrol in Haren

The European Organisation for the Safety of Air Navigation, commonly known as Eurocontrol, is an

international organisation which coordinates and plans air traffic control across European airspace. The corporation was founded in 1960 and has 41 member states.[121]
Its headquarters are located in Haren, Brussels.

Demographics

Main article: Demographics of Brussels

Population

Population density of Europe. Brussels is located between the largest urban centres.

Brussels is located in one of the most

Rhine-Ruhr (Germany), and the Randstad (Netherlands). The Brussels-Capital Region has a population of around 1.2 million and has witnessed, in recent years, a remarkable increase in its population. In general, the population of Brussels is younger than the national average, and the gap between rich and poor is wider.[122]

Brussels is the core of a built-up area that extends well beyond the region's limits. Sometimes referred to as the urban area of Brussels (French: aire urbaine de Bruxelles, Dutch: stedelijk gebied van Brussel) or Greater Brussels (French: Grand-Bruxelles, Dutch: Groot-Brussel), this area extends over a large part of the two Brabant provinces, including much of the surrounding arrondissement of Halle-Vilvoorde and some small parts of the arrondissement of Leuven in Flemish Brabant, as well as the northern part of Walloon Brabant.

The metropolitan area of Brussels is divided into three levels. Firstly, the central agglomeration (within the regional borders), with a population of 1,218,255 inhabitants.

commuter zone (Brussels Regional Express Network (RER/GEN) area), the population is 2,676,701.[19][20] Brussels is also part of a wider diamond-shaped conurbation, with Ghent, Antwerp and Leuven, which has about 4.4 million inhabitants (a little more than 40% of the Belgium's total population).[21][123]

[verification needed] 01-07-2004[124] 01-07-2005[124] 01-07-2006[124] 01-01-2008[124] 01-01-2015[124] 01-01-2019[124] 01-01-2020[124]
Brussels-Capital Region[124][verification needed] 1.004.239 1.012.258 1.024.492 1.048.491 1.181.272 1.208.542 1.218.255
-- of which legal immigrants[124][verification needed] 262.943 268.009 277.682 295.043 385.381 450.000 ?

Nationalities

Largest groups of foreign residents (2022)[125]
 France 68,418
 Romania 45,243
 Italy 35,154
 Morocco 33,955
 Spain 30,609
 Poland 20,060
 Portugal 18,968
 Bulgaria 13,104
 Germany 10,927
 Greece 9,675
Other countries/territories
 Syria 9,555
 Turkey 8,494
 Netherlands 8,287
 Democratic Republic of the Congo 7,836
 India 7,273
 United Kingdom 5,322
 Guinea 5,231
 Brazil 4,834
 Cameroon 4,473
 Algeria 2,996

There have been numerous migrations towards Brussels since the end of the 18th century, when the city acted as a common destination for political refugees from neighbouring or more distant countries, particularly France.[126] From 1871, many of the Paris Communards fled to Brussels, where they received political asylum. Other notable international exiles living in Brussels at the time included Victor Hugo, Karl Marx, Pierre-Joseph Proudhon, Georges Boulanger, and Léon Daudet, to name a few.[126] Attracted by the industrial opportunities, many workers moved in, first from the other Belgian provinces (mainly rural residents from Flanders)[127] and France, then from Southern European, and more recently from Eastern European and African countries.

Nowadays, Brussels is home to a large number of immigrants and émigré communities, as well as labour migrants, former foreign students or expatriates, and many Belgian families in Brussels can claim at least one foreign grandparent. At the last Belgian census in 1991, 63.7% of inhabitants in Brussels-Capital Region answered that they were Belgian citizens, born as such in Belgium, indicating that more than a third of residents had not been born in the country.[128][129] According to Statbel (the Belgian Statistical Office), in 2020, taking into account the nationality of birth of the parents, 74.3% of the population of the Brussels-Capital Region was of foreign origin and 41.8% was of non-European origin (including 28.7% of African origin). Among those aged under 18, 88% were of foreign origin and 57% of non-European origin (including 42.4% of African origin).[5]

This large concentration of immigrants and their descendants includes many of

Belgian colonies, such as the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Rwanda and Burundi. Many immigrants were naturalised following the great 1991 reform of the naturalisation process. In 2012, about 32% of city residents were of non-Belgian European origin (mainly expatriates from France, Romania, Italy, Spain, Poland, and Portugal) and 36% were of another background, mostly from Morocco, Turkey and Sub-Saharan Africa. Among all major migrant groups from outside the EU, a majority of the permanent residents have acquired Belgian nationality.[130]

Languages

See also: Francization of Brussels
Languages spoken at home in the Brussels-Capital Region (2013)[131]
  French
  French and Dutch
  Dutch
  French and other language
  Neither French nor Dutch

Brussels was historically Dutch-speaking, using the Brabantian dialect,[132][133][134] but over the two past centuries[132][135] French has become the predominant language of the city.[136] The main cause of this transition was the rapid assimilation of the local Flemish population,[137][132][138][139][134] amplified by immigration from France and Wallonia.[132][140] The rise of French in public life gradually began by the end of the 18th century,[141][142] quickly accelerating after Belgian independence.[143][144] Dutch — of which standardisation in Belgium was still very weak[145][146][144] — could not compete with French, which was the exclusive language of the judiciary, the administration, the army, education, cultural life and the media, and thus necessary for social mobility.[147][148][133][149][135] The value and prestige of the French language was universally acknowledged[133][150][137][144][151][152] to such an extent that after 1880,[153][154][145] and more particularly after the turn of the 20th century,[144] proficiency in French among Dutch-speakers in Brussels increased spectacularly.[155]

Although a majority of the population remained bilingual until the second half of the 20th century,[155][137] family transmission of the historic Brabantian dialect[156] declined,[157] leading to an increase of monolingual French-speakers from 1910 onwards.[150][158] From the mid-20th century, the number of monolingual French-speakers surpassed the number of mostly bilingual Flemish inhabitants.[159] This process of assimilation weakened after the 1960s,[155][160] as the language border was fixed, the status of Dutch as an official language of Belgium was reinforced,[161] and the economic centre of gravity shifted northward to Flanders.[145][153] However, with the continuing arrival of immigrants and the post-war emergence of Brussels as a centre of international politics, the relative position of Dutch continued to decline.[162][135][163][164][155][157] Furthermore, as Brussels' urban area expanded,[165] a further number of Dutch-speaking municipalities in the Brussels periphery also became predominantly French-speaking.[161][166] This phenomenon of expanding Francisation — dubbed "oil slick" by its opponents[137][167][155] — is, together with the future of Brussels,[168] one of the most controversial topics in Belgian politics.[153][148]

Bilingual French and Dutch street signs in Brussels

Today, the Brussels-Capital Region is legally bilingual, with both French and Dutch having official status,[169] as is the administration of the 19 municipalities.[162] The creation of this bilingual, full-fledged region, with its own competencies and jurisdiction, had long been hampered by different visions of Belgian federalism. Nevertheless, some communitarian issues remain.[170][171] Flemish political parties demanded, for decades, that the Flemish part of Brussels-Halle-Vilvoorde (BHV) arrondissement be separated from the Brussels Region (which made Halle-Vilvoorde a monolingual Flemish electoral and judicial district). BHV was divided mid-2012. The French-speaking population regards the language border as artificial[172] and demands the extension of the bilingual region to at least all six municipalities with language facilities in the surroundings of Brussels.[d] Flemish politicians have strongly rejected these proposals.[173][174][175]

The municipalities with language facilities (in red) near Brussels

Owing to migration and to its international role, Brussels is home to a large number of native speakers of languages other than French or Dutch. Currently, about half of the population speaks a home language other than these two.[176] In 2013, academic research showed that approximately 17% of families spoke none of the official languages in the home, while in a further 23% a foreign language was used alongside French. The share of unilingual French-speaking families had fallen to 38% and that of Dutch-speaking families to 5%, while the percentage of bilingual Dutch-French families reached 17%. At the same time, French remains widely spoken: in 2013, French was spoken "well to perfectly" by 88% of the population, while for Dutch this percentage was only 23% (down from 33% in 2000);[162] the other most commonly known languages were English (30%), Arabic (18%), Spanish (9%), German (7%) and Italian and Turkish (5% each).[131] Despite the rise of English as a second language in Brussels, including as an unofficial compromise language between French and Dutch, as well as the working language for some of its international businesses and institutions, French remains the lingua franca and all public services are conducted exclusively in French or Dutch.[162]

The original dialect of Brussels (known as

Brabantic (the variant of Dutch spoken in the ancient Duchy of Brabant) with a significant number of loanwords from French, still survives among a small minority of inhabitants called Brusseleers[49] (or Brusseleirs), many of them quite bi- and multilingual, or educated in French and not writing in Dutch.[177][48] The ethnic and national self-identification of Brussels' inhabitants is nonetheless sometimes quite distinct from the French and Dutch-speaking communities. For the French-speakers, it can vary from Francophone Belgian, Bruxellois[51] (French demonym for an inhabitant of Brussels), Walloon (for people who migrated from the Walloon Region at an adult age); for Flemings living in Brussels, it is mainly either Dutch-speaking Belgian, Flemish or Brusselaar (Dutch demonym for an inhabitant), and often both. For the Brusseleers, many simply consider themselves as belonging to Brussels.[48]

Religions

Further information: Religion in Belgium
The National Basilica of the Sacred Heart in Koekelberg

Historically, Brussels has been predominantly

Minor Basilica and parish church, as well as one of the largest churches by area in the world.[178] The Church of Our Lady of Laeken holds the tombs of many members of the Belgian Royal Family, including all the former Belgian monarchs, within the Royal Crypt
.

Religions in the Brussels-Capital Region (2016)[179]

  
Roman Catholicism (40%)
  Islam (23%)
  Protestantism
(3%)
  Other religions (4%)
  Non-religious (30%)

In reflection of its multicultural makeup, Brussels hosts a variety of religious communities, as well as large numbers of

Protestants and 4% were of another religion.[179]

As guaranteed by Belgian law, recognised religions and non-religious philosophical organisations (French: organisations laïques, Dutch: vrijzinnige levensbeschouwelijke organisaties)[180] enjoy public funding and school courses. It was once the case that every pupil in an official school from 6 to 18 years old had to choose two hours per week of compulsory religious—or non-religious-inspired morals—courses. However, in 2015, the Belgian Constitutional Court ruled religious studies could no longer be required in the primary and secondary educational systems.[181]

The Great Mosque of Brussels is the seat of the Islamic and Cultural Centre of Belgium.

Brussels has a large concentration of

better source needed
]

Regions of Belgium[183] (1 January 2016) Total population People of Muslim origin % of Muslims
Belgium 11,371,928 603,642 5.3%
Brussels-Capital Region 1,180,531 212,495 18%
Wallonia 3,395,942 149,421 4.4%
Flanders 6,043,161 241,726 4.0%

Culture

Further information: Culture of Belgium

Architecture

The architecture in Brussels is diverse, and spans from the clashing combination of Gothic, Baroque, and Louis XIV styles on the Grand-Place to the postmodern buildings of the EU institutions.[184]

Manneken Pis is a well-known public sculpture in Brussels.

Very little

Breadhouse and the Baroque guildhalls of the former Guilds of Brussels. Manneken Pis, a fountain containing a small bronze sculpture of a urinating youth, is a tourist attraction and symbol of the city.[186]

The Grand-Place of Brussels, a UNESCO World Heritage Site

The

Palace of Justice (1883). The latter, designed by Joseph Poelaert, in eclectic style, is reputed to be the largest building constructed in the 19th century.[187]

Located outside the historical centre, in a greener environment bordering the

memorial arcade and nearby museums, and in Laeken, the Royal Palace of Laeken and the Royal Domain with its large greenhouses, as well as the Museums of the Far East
.

Also particularly striking are the buildings in the

Henry Van de Velde.[188][189] Some of Brussels' municipalities, such as Schaerbeek, Etterbeek, Ixelles, and Saint-Gilles, were developed during the heyday of Art Nouveau and have many buildings in that style. The Major Town Houses of the Architect Victor Horta—Hôtel Tassel (1893), Hôtel Solvay (1894), Hôtel van Eetvelde (1895) and the Horta Museum (1901)—have been listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site since 2000.[68] Another example of Brussels' Art Nouveau is the Stoclet Palace (1911), by the Viennese architect Josef Hoffmann, designated a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in June 2009.[190]

largest churches by area in the world, and its cupola provides a panoramic view of Brussels and its outskirts. Another example are the exhibition halls of the Centenary Palace, built for the 1935 World's Fair on the Heysel/Heizel Plateau in northern Brussels, home to the Brussels Exhibition Centre (Brussels Expo).[191]

Flagey Building (or Maison de la Radio) in Ixelles

The Atomium is a symbolic 103 m-tall (338 ft) modernist structure, located on the Heysel Plateau, which was originally built for the 1958 World's Fair (Expo 58). It consists of nine steel spheres connected by tubes, and forms a model of an iron crystal (specifically, a unit cell), magnified 165 billion times. The architect André Waterkeyn devoted the building to science. It is now considered a landmark of Brussels.[192][193] Next to the Atomium, is Mini-Europe miniature park, with 1:25 scale maquettes of famous buildings from across Europe.

The Atomium, a landmark of Brussels

Since the second half of the 20th century, modern office towers have been built in Brussels (

Espace Léopold
complete the picture.

The city's embrace of modern architecture translated into an ambivalent approach towards historic preservation, leading to the destruction of notable architectural landmarks, most famously the Maison du Peuple/Volkshuis by Victor Horta, a process known as Brusselisation.[71][72]

Arts

Cinquantenaire/Jubelpark memorial arcade and museums

Brussels contains over 80 museums.[194] The Royal Museums of Fine Arts has an extensive collection of various painters, such as Flemish old masters like Bruegel, Rogier van der Weyden, Robert Campin, Anthony van Dyck, Jacob Jordaens, and Peter Paul Rubens. The Magritte Museum houses the world's largest collection of the works of the surrealist René Magritte. Museums dedicated to the national history of Belgium include the BELvue Museum, the Royal Museums of Art and History, and the Royal Museum of the Armed Forces and Military History. The Musical Instruments Museum (MIM), housed in the Old England building, is part of the Royal Museums of Art and History, and is internationally renowned for its collection of over 8,000 instruments.

The Brussels Museums Council is an independent body for all the museums in the Brussels-Capital Region, covering around 100 federal, private, municipal, and community museums.[195] It promotes member museums through the Brussels Card (giving access to public transport and 30 of the 100 museums), the Brussels Museums Nocturnes (every Thursday from 5 p.m. to 10 p.m. from mid-September to mid-December) and the Museum Night Fever (an event for and by young people on a Saturday night in late February or early March).[196]

Royal Theatre of La Monnaie

Brussels has had a distinguished artist scene for many years. The famous Belgian surrealists

Spirou, Gaston, Marsupilami, Blake and Mortimer, Boule et Bill and Cubitus (see Belgian comics). Throughout the city, walls are painted with large motifs of comic book characters; these murals taken together are known as Brussels' Comic Book Route.[44] Also, the interiors of some Metro stations are designed by artists. The Belgian Comic Strip Center combines two artistic leitmotifs of Brussels, being a museum devoted to Belgian comic strips, housed in the former Magasins Waucquez textile department store, designed by Victor Horta in the Art Nouveau style. In addition, street art is changing the landscape of this multicultural city.[197]

Brussels is well known for its

Palais 12/Paleis 12. Furthermore, the Jazz Station in Saint-Josse-ten-Noode is a museum and archive on jazz, and a venue for jazz concerts.[201]

Folklore

Further information: Folklore of Belgium
Meyboom giants in Brussels, a UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage

Brussels' identity owes much to its rich folklore and traditions, among the liveliest in the country.

Cultural events and festivals

Brussels Summer Festival (BSF)

Many events are organised or hosted in Brussels throughout the year. In addition, many festivals animate the Brussels scene.

The

Festival of Europe, an open day and activities in and around the institutions of the European Union, is held on 9 May. On Belgian National Day, on 21 July, a military parade and celebrations take place on the Place des Palais/Paleizenplein and in Brussels Park
, ending with a display of fireworks in the evening.

Zinneke Parade of Brussels

Some summer festivities include

urban music, around the end of June or early July, the Brussels Summer Festival (BSF), a music festival in August,[208] the Brussels Fair, the most important yearly fair in Brussels, lasting more than a month, in July and August,[209] and Brussels Beach, when the banks of the canal are turned into a temporary urban beach.[210] Other biennial events are the Zinneke Parade, a colourful, multicultural parade through the city, which has been held since 2000 in May, as well as the popular Flower Carpet at the Grand-Place in August. Heritage Days are organised on the third weekend of September (sometimes coinciding with the car-free day) and are a good opportunity to discover the wealth of buildings, institutions and real estate in Brussels. The "Winter Wonders" animate the heart of Brussels in December; these winter activities were launched in Brussels in 2001.[211][212]

Cuisine

Brussels is known for its local waffles.

Brussels is well known for its local waffle, its chocolate, its French fries and its numerous types of beers. The Brussels sprout, which has long been popular in Brussels, and may have originated there, is also named after the city.[213]

The gastronomic offer includes approximately 1,800

fast food chains. The cafés are similar to bars, and offer beer and light dishes; coffee houses are called salons de thé (literally "tea salons"). Also widespread are brasseries
, which usually offer a variety of beers and typical national dishes.

friteries
are spread throughout the city, and in tourist areas, fresh hot waffles are also sold on the street.

As well as other

spontaneously fermented lambic style, brewed in and around Brussels, is widely available there and in the nearby Senne valley where the wild yeasts that ferment it have their origin.[216] Kriek
, a cherry lambic, is available in almost every bar or restaurant in Brussels.

Brussels is known as the birthplace of the Belgian endive. The technique for growing blanched endives was accidentally discovered in the 1850s at the Botanical Garden of Brussels in Saint-Josse-ten-Noode.[217]

Shopping

Flea market on the Place du Jeu de Balle/Vossenplein

Famous

Rue Neuve/Nieuwstraat, the second busiest shopping street in Belgium (after the Meir, in Antwerp) with a weekly average of 230,000 visitors,[218][219] home to popular international chains (H&M, C&A, Zara, Primark), as well as the City 2 and Anspach galleries.[220] The Royal Saint-Hubert Galleries hold a variety of luxury shops and some six million people stroll through them each year.[221] The neighbourhood around the Rue Antoine Dansaert/Antoine Dansaertstraat has become, in recent years, a focal point for fashion and design;[222] this main street and its side streets also feature Belgium's young and most happening artistic talent.[223]

In Ixelles, the Avenue de la Toison d'Or/Gulden-Vlieslaan and the Namur Gate area offer a blend of luxury shops, fast food restaurants and entertainment venues, and the Chaussée d'Ixelles/Elsenesteenweg, in the mainly-Congolese Matongé district, offers a great taste of African fashion and lifestyle. The nearby Avenue Louise/Louizalaan is lined with high-end fashion stores and boutiques, making it one of the most expensive streets in Belgium.[224]

There are shopping centres outside the inner ring: Basilix, Woluwe Shopping Center, Westland Shopping Center, and Docks Bruxsel, which opened in October 2017.

Sablon/Zavel area is home to many of Brussels' antique dealers.[226] The Midi Market around Brussels-South station and the Boulevard du Midi/Zuidlaan is reputed to be one of the largest markets in Europe.[227]

Sports

Further information: Sport in Belgium
20 km of Brussels

Sport in Brussels is under the responsibility of the

BLOSO).[229]

The

1985 European Cup Final which saw 39 deaths due to hooliganism and structural collapse.[231] The King Baudouin Stadium is also home of the annual Memorial Van Damme athletics event, Belgium's foremost track and field competition, which is part of the Diamond League. Other important athletics events are the Brussels Marathon and the 20 km of Brussels
, an annual run with 30,000 participants.

Cycling

Brussels is home to notable

cycling races. The city is the arrival location of the Brussels Cycling Classic, formerly known as Paris–Brussels, which is one of the oldest semi classic bicycle races on the international calendar. From World War I until the early 1970s, the Six Days of Brussels was organised regularly. In the last decades of the 20th century, the Grand Prix Eddy Merckx
was also held in Brussels.

Association football

R.S.C. Anderlecht fans at the Constant Vanden Stock Stadium

Racing White Daring Molenbeek, based in Molenbeek-Saint-Jean
, and often referred to as RWDM, is a very popular football club that, since 2023, is back playing in the Belgian Pro League.

Other Brussels clubs that played in the national series over the years were Royal White Star Bruxelles, Ixelles SC, Crossing Club de Schaerbeek (born from a merger between RCS de Schaerbeek and Crossing Club Molenbeek), Scup Jette, RUS de Laeken, Racing Jet de Bruxelles, AS Auderghem, KV Wosjot Woluwe and FC Ganshoren.

Economy

Further information: Economy of Belgium

Serving as the centre of administration for Belgium and Europe, Brussels' economy is largely

Cantillon Brewery, a lambic brewery founded in 1900.[234]

Northern Quarter
business district

Brussels has a robust economy. The region contributes to one fifth of Belgium's

GDP per capita is nearly double that of Belgium as a whole,[15] and it has the highest GDP per capita of any NUTS 1 region in the EU, at ~$80,000 in 2016.[236] That being said, the GDP is boosted by a massive inflow of commuters from neighbouring regions; over half of those who work in Brussels live in Flanders or Wallonia, with 230,000 and 130,000 commuters per day respectively. Conversely, only 16.0% of people from Brussels work outside Brussels (68,827 (68.5%) of them in Flanders and 21,035 (31.5%) in Wallonia).[237] Not all of the wealth generated in Brussels remains in Brussels itself, and as of December 2013, the unemployment among residents of Brussels is 20.4%.[238]

Former Brussels Stock Exchange building

There are approximately 50,000 businesses in Brussels, of which around 2,200 are foreign. This number is constantly increasing and can well explain the role of Brussels in Europe. The city's infrastructure is very favourable in terms of starting up a new business. House prices have also increased in recent years, especially with the increase of young professionals settling down in Brussels, making it the most expensive city to live in Belgium.[239] In addition, Brussels holds more than 1,000 business conferences annually, making it the ninth most popular conference city in Europe.[240]

Brussels is rated as the 34th most important financial centre in the world as of 2020, according to the

BEL20
.

Media

Further information:
Belgian media

Brussels is a centre of both media and communications in Belgium, with many Belgian television stations, radio stations,

Telenet
are all located there.

As English is spoken widely,

The Bulletin. The multilingual pan-European news channel Euronews also maintains an office in Brussels.[243]

Education

Further information: Education in Belgium

Tertiary education

Main building on the Solbosch campus of the Université libre de Bruxelles (ULB)

There are several universities in Brussels. Except for the Royal Military Academy, a federal military college established in 1834,[244] all universities in Brussels are private and autonomous. The Royal Military Academy also the only Belgian university organised on the boarding school model.[245]

The

Université libre de Bruxelles (ULB), a French-speaking university, with about 20,000 students, has three campuses in the city,[246] and the Vrije Universiteit Brussel (VUB), its Dutch-speaking sister university, has about 10,000 students.[247] Both universities originate from a single ancestor university, founded in 1834, namely the Free University of Brussels, which was split in 1970, at about the same time the Flemish and French Communities gained legislative power over the organisation of higher education.[248]

Saint-Louis University, Brussels (also known as UCLouvain Saint-Louis – Bruxelles) was founded in 1858 and is specialised in social and human sciences, with 4,000 students, and located on two campuses in the City of Brussels and Ixelles.[249] From September 2018 on, the university uses the name UCLouvain, together with the Catholic University of Louvain, in the context of a merger between both universities.[250]

Still other universities have campuses in Brussels, such as the French-speaking Catholic University of Louvain (UCLouvain), which has 10,000 students in the city with its medical faculties at UCLouvain Bruxelles Woluwe since 1973,[251] in addition to its Faculty of Architecture, Architectural Engineering and Urban Planning[252] and UCLouvain's Dutch-speaking sister Katholieke Universiteit Leuven (KU Leuven)[253] (offering bachelor's and master's degrees in economics & business, law, arts, and architecture; 4,400 students). In addition, the University of Kent's Brussels School of International Studies is a specialised postgraduate school offering advanced international studies.

Also a dozen of university colleges are located in Brussels, including two drama schools, founded in 1832: the French-speaking

Koninklijk Conservatorium.[254][255]

Primary and secondary education

Most of Brussels pupils between the ages of 3 and 18 go to schools organised by the

French-speaking Community or the Flemish Community, with close to 80% going to French-speaking schools, and roughly 20% to Dutch-speaking schools. Due to the post-war international presence in the city, there are also a number of international schools, including the International School of Brussels, with 1,450 pupils, between the ages of 2+1⁄2 and 18,[256] the British School of Brussels, and the four European Schools, which provide free education for the children of those working in the EU institutions. The combined student population of the four European Schools in Brussels is around 10,000.[257]

Libraries

Main article: List of libraries in Belgium
Royal Library of Belgium (KBR)

Brussels has a number of public or private-owned libraries on its territory.[258] Most public libraries in Brussels fall under the competence of the Communities and are usually separated between French-speaking and Dutch-speaking institutions, although some are mixed.[verification needed]

The

Central Station.[259]

There are several academic libraries and archives in Brussels. The libraries of the Université libre de Bruxelles (ULB) and the Vrije Universiteit Brussel (VUB) constitute the largest ensemble of university libraries in the city. In addition to the Solbosch location, there are branches in La Plaine and Erasme/Erasmus.[260][261] Other academic libraries include those of Saint-Louis University, Brussels[262] and the Catholic University of Louvain (UCLouvain).[263]

Science and technology

Main article: Science and technology in Brussels
Planetarium of the Royal Observatory of Belgium

Science and technology in Brussels is well developed with the presence of several universities and research institutes. The Brussels-Capital Region is home to several national science and technology institutes including the National Fund for Scientific Research (NFSR), the Institute for the Encouragement of Scientific Research and Innovation of Brussels (ISRIB), the Royal Academies for Science and the Arts of Belgium (RASAB) and the Belgian Academy Council of Applied Sciences (BACAS). Several science parks associated with the universities are also spread over the region.

The

Belgian Federal Science Policy Office), on the Heysel Plateau in Laeken, is one of the largest in Europe.[265]

Healthcare

Main article: List of hospitals in Belgium § Brussels-Capital Region
Erasmus Hospital in Anderlecht

Brussels is home to a thriving pharmaceutical and health care industry which includes pioneering biotechnology research. The health sector employs 70,000 employees in 30,000 companies. There are 3,000 life sciences researchers in the city and two large science parks: Da Vinci Research Park and Erasmus Research Park. There are five university hospitals, a military hospital and more than 40 general hospitals and specialist clinics.[266]

Due to

linguistic communities and are thus monolingual French or Dutch by law. Other hospitals managed by a public authority must be legally bilingual. Private hospitals are legally not bound to either language, but most cater to both. However, all hospital emergency services in the Capital Region (whether part of a public or private hospital) are required to be bilingual, since patients transported by emergency ambulance cannot choose the hospital they will be brought to.[267]

Transport

Main article: Transport in Brussels

Brussels has an extensive network of both private or public transportation means. Public transportation includes

trams, and metro (all three operated by the Brussels Intercommunal Transport Company (STIB/MIVB)), as well as a set of railway lines (operated by Infrabel) and railway stations served by public trains (operated by the National Railway Company of Belgium (NMBS/SNCB)). Air transport is available via one of the city's two airports (Brussels Airport and Brussels South Charleroi Airport), and boat transport is available via the Port of Brussels
. Bicycle-sharing and car-sharing public systems are also available.

The complexity of the Belgian political landscape makes some transportation issues difficult to solve. The Brussels-Capital Region is surrounded by the Flemish and Walloon regions, which means that the airports, as well as many roads serving Brussels (most notably the Brussels Ring) are located in the other two Belgian regions. The city is relatively car-dependent by northern European standards and is considered to be the most congested city in the world according to the INRIX traffic survey.[268]

Air

Brussels Airlines Airbus A319 landing at Brussels Airport in Zaventem

The Brussels-Capital Region is served by two airports, both located outside of the administrative territory of the region. The most notable is Brussels Airport, located in the nearby Flemish municipality of Zaventem, 12 km (10 mi) east of the capital, which can be accessed by highway (A201), train and bus. The secondary airport is Brussels South Charleroi Airport, located in Gosselies, a part of the city of Charleroi (Wallonia), some 50 km (30 mi) south-west of Brussels, which can be accessed by highway (E19 then E420) or a private bus. There is also Melsbroek Air Base, located in Steenokkerzeel, a military airport which shares its infrastructure with Brussels Airport. The aforementioned airports are also the main airports of Belgium.[269]

Water

The Saint Catherine Dock, Eugène Boudin, 1871

Since the 16th century, Brussels has had its own harbour, the Port of Brussels. It has been enlarged throughout the centuries to become the second Belgian inland port. Historically situated near the Place Sainte-Catherine/Sint-Katelijneplein, it lies today to the north-west of the region, on the Brussels–Scheldt Maritime Canal (commonly called Willebroek Canal), which connects Brussels to Antwerp via the Scheldt. Ships and large barges up to 4,500 t (9,900,000 lb) can penetrate deep into the country, avoiding break-ups and load transfers between Antwerp and the centre of Brussels, hence reducing the cost for companies using the canal, and thus offering a competitive advantage.

Moreover, the connection of the Willebroek Canal with the

Hainaut (Wallonia). There, navigation can access the network of French canals, thanks to the important inclined plane of Ronquières and the lifts of Strépy-Bracquegnies
.

The importance of river traffic in Brussels makes it possible to avoid the road equivalent of 740,000 trucks per year—almost 2,000 per day—which, in addition to easing traffic problems, represents an estimated carbon dioxide saving of 51,545 t (113,637,000 lb) per year.[270]

Train

Further information:
List of railway stations in Belgium
Main hall of Brussels-South railway station, home to the Eurostar train service to London
High-speed rail networks connect Brussels with other European cities (ICE train at Brussels-North railway station pictured).

The Brussels-Capital Region has three main train stations: Brussels-South, Brussels-Central and Brussels-North, which are also the busiest of the country.[34] Brussels-South is also served by direct high-speed rail links: to London by Eurostar trains via the Channel Tunnel (1hr 51min); to Amsterdam[271] by Thalys and InterCity connections; to Amsterdam, Paris (1hr 50min and 1hr 25min respectively as of 6 April 2015), and Cologne by Thalys; and to Cologne (1hr 50min) and Frankfurt (2hr 57min) by the German ICE.

The train rails in Brussels go underground, near the centre, through the North–South connection, with Brussels Central Station also being largely underground. The tunnel itself is only six tracks wide at its narrowest point, which often causes congestion and delays due to heavy use of the route.

The

Schaarbeek, Uccle-Calevoet, Uccle-Stalle, Vivier d'Oie-Diesdelle (Uccle), Merode and Watermael
.

Public transport

The

TEC network in Wallonia
.

Metro, trams and buses

Brussels Metro carriage at Erasme/Erasmus metro station
Network map of the Brussels Metro

The

TEC
bus stops.

A comprehensive

tram network covers the region. As of 2017, the Brussels tram system consists of 17 tram lines (three of which – lines T3, T4 and T7 – qualify as premetro lines that partly travel over underground sections that were intended to be eventually converted into metro lines).[274] The total route length is 139 km (86 mi),[273] making it one of the largest tram networks in Europe. The Brussels bus network is complementary to the rail network. It consists of 50 bus routes and 11 night routes, spanning 445 km (277 mi).[273]

Since April 2007, STIB/MIVB has also been operating a night bus network called Noctis on Friday and Saturday nights from midnight until 3 a.m.[275] The service consists of 11 routes (N04, N05, N06, N08, N09, N10, N11, N12, N13, N16 and N18).[276] The fare on these night buses is the same as during the day. All the lines leave from the Place de la Bourse/Beursplein in the city centre at 30 minutes intervals and cover all the main streets in the capital, as they radiate outwards to the suburbs.[277] Noctis services returned from 2 July 2021 after over a year of disruption due to the COVID-19 pandemic in Belgium.[275]

Ticketing

MoBIB is the STIB/MIVB electronic smart card, introduced in 2007, replacing the discontinued paper tickets. The hourly travel fare includes all means of transport (metro, tram and bus) operated by STIB/MIVB. Each trip has a different cost depending on the type of support purchased. Passengers can purchase monthly passes, yearly passes, 1 and 10-trip tickets and daily and 3-day passes. These can be bought over the Internet, but require customers to have a smart card reader. GO vending machines accept coins, local and international chip and PIN credit and debit cards.

Moreover, a complimentary interticketing system means that a combined STIB/MIVB ticket holder can, depending on the option, also use the train network operated by NMBS/SNCB and/or long-distance buses and commuter services operated by De Lijn or TEC. With this ticket, a single journey can include multiple stages across the different modes of transport and networks.

Other public transport

shared bicycles
in Brussels

Since 2003, Brussels has had a car-sharing service operated by the

public bicycle-sharing programme was introduced. The scheme was subsequently taken over by Villo!
. Since 2008, this night-time public transport service has been supplemented by Collecto, a shared taxi system, which operates on weekdays between 11 p.m. and 6 a.m. In 2012, the Zen Car electric car-sharing scheme was launched in the university and European areas.

Road network

The Rue de la Loi/Wetstraat is one of the city's main streets.

In medieval times, Brussels stood at the intersection of routes running north–south (the modern Rue Haute/Hoogstraat) and east–west (Chaussée de Gand/Gentsesteenweg–Rue du Marché aux Herbes/Grasmarkt–Rue de Namur/Naamsestraat). The ancient pattern of streets, radiating from the Grand-Place, in large part remains, but has been overlaid by boulevards built over the river Senne, over the city walls and over the railway connection between the North and South Stations. Today, Brussels has the most congested traffic in North America and Europe, according to US traffic information platform INRIX.[278]

Distances to other cities
These distances are as the crow flies:
City Distance
 Antwerp 43.3 km (26.9 mi) N
 Charleroi 47.4 km (29.5 mi) S
 Ghent 51.0 km (31.7 mi) NW
 Liège 88.5 km (55.0 mi) E
 Lille 94.6 km (58.8 mi) SW
Other cities
 Rotterdam 121.1 km (75.2 mi) N
 Amsterdam 174.7 km (108.6 mi) N
 Cologne 183.0 km (113.7 mi) E
Luxembourg City 185.3 km (115.1 mi) SE
 Paris 262.9 km (163.4 mi) SW
 
Frankfurt am Main
 316.2 km (196.5 mi) SE
 London 320.7 km (199.3 mi) W

Brussels is the hub of a range of national roads, the main ones being clockwise: the

orbital motorway, numbered R0 (R-zero) and commonly referred to as the Ring
. It is pear-shaped, as the southern side was never built as originally conceived, owing to residents' objections.

The city centre, sometimes known as the

second set of city walls following their demolition. The Metro line 2 runs under much of these. Since June 2015, a number of central boulevards inside the Pentagon have become car-free, limiting transit traffic through the old city.[280]

On the eastern side of the region, the R21 or

Greater Ring (French: Grande Ceinture, Dutch: Grote Ring) is formed by a string of boulevards that curves round from Laeken to Uccle. Some premetro stations (see Brussels Metro) were built on that route. A little further out, a stretch numbered R22 leads from Zaventem to Saint-Job
.

Security and emergency services

Police

Further information: Law enforcement in Belgium
Policeman in Brussels

The Brussels local police, supported by the federal police, is responsible for law enforcement in Brussels. The 19 municipalities of the Brussels-Capital Region are divided into six police zones,[281] all bilingual (French and Dutch):

Fire department

The Brussels Fire and Emergency Medical Care Service, commonly known by its acronym SIAMU (DBDMH), operates in the 19 municipalities of Brussels.[282] It is a class X fire department and the largest fire service in Belgium in terms of annual operations, equipment, and personnel. It has 9 fire stations, spread over the entire Brussels-Capital Region, and employs about 1,000 professional firefighters. As well as preventing and fighting fires, SIAMU also provides emergency medical care services in Brussels via its centralised 100 number (and the single 112 emergency number for the 27 countries of the European Union). It is bilingual (French–Dutch).

Parks and green spaces

Main article: List of parks and gardens in Brussels

Brussels is one of the greenest capitals in Europe, with over 8,000 hectares of green spaces.[283] Vegetation cover and natural areas are higher in the outskirts, where they have limited the peri-urbanisation of the capital, but they decrease sharply towards the centre of Brussels; 10% in the central Pentagon, 30% of the municipalities in the first ring, and 71% of the municipalities in the second ring are occupied by green spaces.

Many parks and gardens, both public and privately owned, are scattered throughout the city. In addition to this, the

Primeval Beech Forests of the Carpathians and Other Regions of Europe
'.

Notable people

Main article: List of people from Brussels

Twin towns – sister cities

See also: List of twin towns and sister cities in Belgium

Brussels is twinned with the following cities:[284]

See also

References

Footnotes

  1. ^ French pronunciation: [ʁeʒjɔ̃ də bʁysɛl kapital] ⓘ.
  2. ^ Dutch pronunciation: [ˈbrʏsəls ˌɦoːftˈsteːdələk xəˈʋɛst] ⓘ. Gewest in isolation is pronounced [ɣəˈʋɛst] ⓘ.
  3. ^ Brussels is not formally declared capital of the EU, though its position is spelled out in the Treaty of Amsterdam. See the section dedicated to this issue.
  4. ^ The six municipalities with language facilities around Brussels are Wemmel, Kraainem, Wezembeek-Oppem, Sint-Genesius-Rode, Linkebeek and Drogenbos.

Notes

  1. ^ a b c Herbez, Ariel (30 May 2009). "Bruxelles, capitale de la BD". Le Temps (in French). Switzerland. Retrieved 28 May 2010. Plus que jamais, Bruxelles mérite son statut de capitale de la bande dessinée.[dead link]
  2. ^ "be.STAT". bestat.statbel.fgov.be. Archived from the original on 23 January 2021. Retrieved 13 August 2020.
  3. ^ "Mini-Bru | IBSA". ibsa.brussels. Archived from the original on 9 March 2021. Retrieved 17 March 2021.
  4. ^ "Population-Bevolking-20230101" (PDF) (in Dutch). Statbel. 4 December 2012. Archived from the original on 23 August 2022. Retrieved 24 August 2022.
  5. ^ a b Michèle Tribalat, Population d'origine étrangère en Belgique en 2020 Archived 2 May 2021 at the Wayback Machine, 8 February 2021
  6. ^ "EU regions by GDP, Eurostat". Retrieved 18 September 2023.
  7. ^ "Sub-national HDI – Area Database – Global Data Lab". hdi.globaldatalab.org. Archived from the original on 23 September 2018. Retrieved 18 August 2019.
  8. ^ a b The Belgian Constitution (PDF). Brussels: Belgian House of Representatives. May 2014. p. 5. Archived from the original (PDF) on 10 August 2015. Retrieved 10 September 2015. Article 3: Belgium comprises three Regions: the Flemish Region, the Walloon Region and the Brussels Region. Article 4: Belgium comprises four linguistic regions: the Dutch-speaking region, the French-speaking region, the bilingual region of Brussels-Capital and the German-speaking region.
  9. ^ a b "Brussels-Capital Region / Creation". Centre d'Informatique pour la Région Bruxelloise [Brussels Regional Informatics Center]. 2009. Archived from the original on 29 April 2009. Retrieved 5 June 2009. Since 18 June 1989, the date of the first regional elections, the Brussels-Capital Region has been an autonomous region comparable to the Flemish and Walloon Regions. (All text and all but one graphic show the English name as Brussels-Capital Region.)
  10. ^ a b The Belgian Constitution (PDF). Brussels, Belgium: Belgian House of Representatives. May 2014. p. 63. Archived from the original (PDF) on 10 August 2015. Retrieved 10 September 2015. Article 194: The city of Brussels is the capital of Belgium and the seat of the Federal Government.
  11. ^ a b Décret instituant Bruxelles capitale de la Communauté française. Brussels, Belgium: Parliament of the French Community. 4 April 1984. Archived from the original on 15 October 2015. Retrieved 11 September 2015.
  12. ^ "The Flemish Community". Belgium.be. 24 October 2011. Archived from the original on 1 April 2018. Retrieved 1 April 2018.
  13. ^ a b Decreet betreffende de keuze van Brussel tot hoofdstad van de Vlaamse Gemeenschap (PDF). Brussels, Belgium: Flemish Parliament. 6 March 1984. Archived from the original (PDF) on 7 March 2021. Retrieved 11 September 2015.
  14. ^ "DE BELGISCHE GRONDWET". www.senate.be. Archived from the original on 5 October 2018. Retrieved 24 October 2017.
  15. ^ a b "Gross domestic product per resident, at current prices – Ratio in relation to the total of the Kingdom". National Bank of Belgium. Archived from the original on 8 August 2014. Retrieved 20 April 2014.
  16. ^ Average income in Belgium reached 19,105 euros in 2019. Belgian Federal Government. 26 October 2021. Archived from the original on 3 October 2022. Retrieved 3 October 2022.
  17. ^ a b "Structuur van de bevolking | Statbel". statbel.fgov.be. Archived from the original on 14 February 2021. Retrieved 13 August 2020.
  18. ^ "Statistics Belgium; Population de droit par commune au 1 janvier 2008". Archived from the original (excel-file) on 17 September 2008. Retrieved 17 September 2008. Population of all municipalities in Belgium on 1 January 2008. Retrieved on 18 October 2008.
  19. ^ a b "Statistics Belgium; De Belgische Stadsgewesten 2001" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 29 October 2008. Retrieved 19 October 2008. Definitions of metropolitan areas in Belgium. The metropolitan area of Brussels is divided into three levels. First, the central agglomeration (geoperationaliseerde agglomeratie) with 1,451,047 inhabitants (2008-01-01, adjusted to municipal borders). Adding the closest surroundings (suburbs, banlieue or buitenwijken) gives a total of 1,831,496. And, including the outer commuter zone (forensenwoonzone) the population is 2,676,701.
  20. ^ a b "Demographia World Urban Areas" (PDF). April 2017. Archived (PDF) from the original on 17 May 2017. Retrieved 29 October 2017.
  21. ^ a b Van Meeteren et al. 2016.
  22. ^ "Europe | Country profiles | Country profile: Belgium". BBC News. 14 June 2010. Archived from the original on 1 July 2010. Retrieved 29 June 2010.
  23. ^ a b c Demey 2007.
  24. ^ "Protocol (No 6) on the location of the seats of the institutions and of certain bodies, offices, agencies and departments of the European Union, Consolidated version of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union, OJ C 83, 30.3.2010, p. 265–265". EUR-Lex. 30 March 2010. Archived from the original on 20 May 2013. Retrieved 3 August 2010.
  25. ^ "Spain to ask Brussels for extra year to meet deficit target". Reuters. 10 April 2016. Archived from the original on 29 July 2020. Retrieved 23 June 2017.
  26. ISSN 0261-3077. Archived
    from the original on 31 December 2021. Retrieved 23 June 2017.
  27. ^ "Secrétariat general". A propos du Benelux (in French). Archived from the original on 14 December 2021. Retrieved 22 August 2017.
  28. ^ "NATO Headquarters". NATO. 16 March 2018. Archived from the original on 18 December 2021. Retrieved 22 August 2017.
  29. ^ "The World According to GaWC 2016". GaWC. 24 April 2017. Archived from the original on 10 October 2013. Retrieved 22 August 2017.
  30. ^ "Transportation in Brussels". www.internations.org. Archived from the original on 4 August 2018. Retrieved 3 August 2018.
  31. ^ "Brussels Capital Region". www.coe.int. Archived from the original on 19 December 2021. Retrieved 19 December 2021.
  32. ^ NATO. "Belgium and NATO - 1949". NATO. Archived from the original on 19 December 2021. Retrieved 19 December 2021.
  33. ^ "Musée Fin-de-Siècle Museum - brusselscard". visit.brussels. Archived from the original on 19 December 2021. Retrieved 19 December 2021.
  34. ^ a b "The Brussels Times – Brussels North is Belgium's busiest train station". Archived from the original on 2 May 2019. Retrieved 3 August 2018.
  35. ^ "Statistics". Brussels Airport Website. Archived from the original on 18 March 2011. Retrieved 3 August 2018.
  36. ISBN 9789051700688
    .
  37. ^ Hughes, Dominic (15 July 2008). "Europe | Analysis: Where now for Belgium?". BBC News. Archived from the original on 19 July 2008. Retrieved 29 June 2010.
  38. ^ Philippe Van Parijs (1 March 2016). "Brussels bilingual? Brussels francophone? Both and neither!". The Brussels Times. Archived from the original on 2 May 2019.
  39. ^ a b c Janssens, Rudi (2008). Language use in Brussels and the position of Dutch. Some recent findings (PDF). Brussels Studies. Archived from the original (PDF) on 23 September 2015. Retrieved 24 November 2018.
  40. ^ Frédéric Chardon (4 December 2017). "Bruxelles est francophone à 92%, selon les déclarations fiscales" [Brussels French-speaking at 92%, according to tax declarations]. La Libre.be (in French). Archived from the original on 28 October 2018. Retrieved 7 December 2017.
  41. ^ a b O'Donnell, Paul; Toebosch, AnneMarie. Multilingualism in Brussels: "I'd Rather Speak English". Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 2008, v. 29 n. 2 p. 154-169.
  42. ^ "Gastronomy — Région bruxelloise – Brussels Gewest". be.brussels. Archived from the original on 3 August 2018. Retrieved 3 August 2018.
  43. ^ "UNESCO heritage in Brussels". Archived from the original on 3 August 2018. Retrieved 3 August 2018.
  44. ^ a b "The walls of the comic strip walk in detail". Archived from the original on 3 August 2018. Retrieved 3 August 2018.
  45. ISBN 90-450-0853-X
  46. ^ (in Dutch) Zo ontstond Brussel Archived 2011-07-06 at the Wayback Machine Vlaamse Gemeenschapscommissie - Commission of the Flemish Community in Brussels
  47. ^ Jean Baptiste D'Hane; François Huet; P.A. Lenz; H.G. Moke (1837). Nouvelles archives historiques, philosophiques, et littéraires (in French). Vol. 1. Gent: C. Annoot- Braeckman. p. 405. Archived from the original on 19 August 2021. Retrieved 3 May 2018.
  48. ^ a b c d Treffers-Daller 1994, p. 25.
  49. ^ a b Mary Anne Evans, Frommer's Brussels and Bruges Day by Day. First Edition (Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons, 2008), 71.
  50. ISBN 978-2-930135-10-6
    .
  51. ^ a b Alain Lerond, Dictionnaire de la prononciation (1980), Larousse, pp. 477.
  52. ^ "Bruxelles: des vestiges romains retrouvés sur le site de Tour et Taxis". RTBF Info (in French). 6 August 2015. Archived from the original on 23 August 2017. Retrieved 28 April 2017.
  53. ^ "Les Romains de Tour & Taxis — Patrimoine – Erfgoed". patrimoine.brussels (in French). Archived from the original on 10 April 2017. Retrieved 28 April 2017.
  54. ^ State 2004, p. 269.
  55. ^ "Zo ontstond Brussel" [This is how Brussels originated] (in Dutch). Vlaamse Gemeenschapscommissie [Commission of the Flemish Community in Brussels]. Archived from the original on 20 November 2007.
  56. ^ "How Brussels became the capital of Europe 500 years ago". The Brussels Times. 21 April 2017. Archived from the original on 14 July 2019. Retrieved 13 August 2019.
  57. ISBN 9781476608891. Archived
    from the original on 14 April 2021. Retrieved 13 August 2019 – via Google Books.
  58. ^ Wasseige 1995, p. 4.
  59. ^ Mardaga 1994, p. 222.
  60. ^ Wasseige 1995, p. 6–7.
  61. ISBN 0870990861, 9780870990861, google books Archived 29 October 2021 at the Wayback Machine
  62. ^ Campbell, ed. Tapestry in the Renaissance: Art and Magnificence, exhibition catalogue, Metropolitan Museum of Art 2002.
  63. ^ Culot et al. 1992.
  64. ^ Galloy & Hayt 2006, p. 86–90.
  65. ^ Slatin 1979, p. 53–54.
  66. ^ Charruadas 2005.
  67. ^ Wolmar 2010, p. 18–20.
  68. ^ a b "Major Town Houses of the Architect Victor Horta (Brussels)". whc.unesco.org. UNESCO World Heritage Centre. Archived from the original on 13 May 2013. Retrieved 14 February 2017.
  69. ^ "STIB – La STIB de 1960 à 1969" [STIB – STIB from 1960 to 1969] (in French). STIB. 2013. Archived from the original on 21 December 2013. Retrieved 15 September 2013.
  70. ^ "STIB – Historique de la STIB de 1970 à 1979" [STIB – History of STIB from 1970 to 1979] (in French). STIB. 2013. Archived from the original on 21 October 2013. Retrieved 15 September 2013.
  71. ^ a b State 2004, p. 51–52.
  72. ^ a b Stubbs & Makaš 2011, p. 121.
  73. ^ "The Brussels-Capital Region". Belgium.be. 1 February 2012. Archived from the original on 24 November 2018. Retrieved 24 November 2018.
  74. ^ "LOI – WET". www.ejustice.just.fgov.be (in French). Archived from the original on 1 March 2021. Retrieved 22 April 2017.
  75. ^ "Association of European Cities of Culture of the Year 2000". Krakow the Open City. 17 August 2011. Archived from the original on 7 January 2017. Retrieved 24 February 2017.
  76. ^ srbija.gov.rs. "Brussels Agreement". www.srbija.gov.rs. Archived from the original on 15 July 2021. Retrieved 15 July 2021.
  77. ^ a b "Brussels G7 summit, Brussels, 04-05/06/2014 – Consilium". European Council. Archived from the original on 7 February 2017. Retrieved 6 February 2017.
  78. ^ "NATO Summit 2017". www.state.gov. Archived from the original on 25 May 2017. Retrieved 27 July 2017.
  79. ^ "NATO Secretary General announces dates for 2018 Brussels Summit". nato.int. 20 October 2017. Archived from the original on 11 May 2019. Retrieved 13 October 2021.
  80. ^ a b "NATO Secretary General announces date of the 2021 Brussels Summit". nato.int. 22 April 2021. Archived from the original on 29 April 2021. Retrieved 29 April 2021.
  81. ^ "Brussels in figures 1". visit.brussels. Archived from the original on 3 September 2017. Retrieved 3 September 2017.
  82. ^ "Le point le plus haut de la région Bruxelloise se trouve en forêt de Soignes". RTBF Info (in French). 22 May 2019. Archived from the original on 14 April 2021. Retrieved 10 February 2021.
  83. ^ "Brussels, Belgium Köppen Climate Classification (Weatherbase)". Weatherbase. Archived from the original on 27 July 2020. Retrieved 2 July 2019.
  84. ^ "Klimaatstatistieken van de Belgische gemeenten, Brussel" (PDF). KMI/IRM. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 March 2021. Retrieved 3 January 2021.
  85. ^ "Normales climatiques à Uccle" (in French). Royal Meteorological Institute. Archived from the original on 3 February 2021. Retrieved 5 March 2021.
  86. ^ "Le climat de la Belgique" (in French). Royal Meteorological Institute. Archived from the original on 14 April 2021. Retrieved 5 March 2021.
  87. ^ "Brussels, Belgium - Detailed climate information and monthly weather forecast". Weather Atlas. Yu Media Group. Archived from the original on 2 July 2019. Retrieved 2 July 2019.
  88. ^ Kristien Bonneure; Johan Droessaert; Gianni Paelinck; Denny Baert (25 July 2019). "Herlees onze Hitteblog: warmste dag ooit eindigt met chaos door propvolle treinen die terugkeren van de kust". VRT Nieuws. Archived from the original on 3 September 2019. Retrieved 26 July 2019.
  89. ^ "Brussels, the capital of Flanders". Flemish Department of Foreign Affairs. Archived from the original on 10 June 2011. Retrieved 6 November 2009.
  90. ^ "Brussels-Capital region / Communes". Brussels Capital-Region / Région de Bruxelles-Capitale. Archived from the original on 6 June 2004. Retrieved 4 August 2008.
  91. ^ a b "Managing across levels of government" (PDF). OECD. 1997. pp. 107, 110. Archived from the original (PDF) on 19 August 2008. Retrieved 5 August 2008.
  92. ^ a b Picavet, Georges (29 April 2003). "Municipalities (1795-now)". Georges Picavet. Archived from the original on 17 August 2011. Retrieved 4 August 2008.
  93. ^ "Brussels Capital-Region". Georges Picavet. 4 June 2005. Archived from the original on 25 July 2011. Retrieved 4 August 2008.
  94. ^ "Fusie van de 19 Brusselse gemeenten". Archived from the original on 20 August 2015. Retrieved 26 August 2015.
  95. ^ "De Brusselse Baronieën". Archived from the original on 3 September 2015. Retrieved 26 August 2015.
  96. ^ "Bruxelles vaut bien une messe?" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 12 August 2014. Retrieved 7 August 2014.
  97. ^ "Brussels attacks: Molenbeek's gangster jihadists". BBC. 24 March 2016. Archived from the original on 9 April 2016. Retrieved 13 April 2016.
  98. ^ "The Belgian neighborhood indelibly linked to jihad". Washington Post. 15 November 2015. Archived from the original on 8 April 2016. Retrieved 13 April 2016.
  99. ^ "Beleaguered Molenbeek struggles to fend off jihadist recruiters". The Times of Israel. 3 April 2016. Archived from the original on 7 April 2016. Retrieved 13 April 2016.
  100. ^ "Molenbeek: Inside Belgium's seething city of jihad where ISIS are heroes". Express. 25 November 2015. Archived from the original on 12 April 2016. Retrieved 13 April 2016.
  101. ^ "World points to "jihad Capital" Molenbeek". Het Niuewsblad. 16 November 2015. Archived from the original on 26 April 2016. Retrieved 13 April 2016.
  102. ^ "Wet houdende organisatie van de agglomeraties en de federaties van gemeenten". Belgiëlex.be. FOD Justitie. Archived from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 11 September 2015.
  103. ^ Procedure contained in art. 138 of the Belgian Constitution
  104. ^ Procedure in art. 137 of the Belgian Constitution
  105. ^ a b "Seat of the European Commission". European Navigator. Archived from the original on 30 September 2007. Retrieved 15 June 2022.
  106. ^ a b European Commission publication: Europe in Brussels 2007
  107. ^ Wheatley, Paul (2 October 2006). "The two-seat parliament farce must end". cafébabel.com. Archived from the original on 10 June 2007. Retrieved 16 July 2007.
  108. ^ Stark, Christine (2 September 2002). Evolution of the European Council: The implications of a permanent seat (PDF). The UACES Thirty-second Annual Conference and Seventh Research Conference, 2–4 September 2002. Archived from the original (PDF) on 9 July 2007. Retrieved 12 July 2007.
  109. ^ Vucheva, Elitsa (5 September 2007). "EU quarter in Brussels set to grow". eubserver.com. Archived from the original on 20 May 2013. Retrieved 27 September 2007.
  110. ^ a b Parker, John (January–February 2007). "A tale of two cities". E!Sharp.
  111. ^ "Brussels, an international city and European capital". L'université Libre de Bruxelles. Archived from the original on 3 August 2010.
  112. ^ a b "Brussels: home to international organisations". diplomatie.be. Archived from the original on 15 February 2006.
  113. ^ Andrew Rettman (8 March 2010). "Daylight shooting in EU capital raises alarm". euobserver.com. Archived from the original on 20 May 2013. Retrieved 29 June 2010.
  114. ^ Leigh Phillips (11 March 2010). "Majority of Brussels lobby firms avoid registry". euobserver.com. Archived from the original on 16 April 2010. Retrieved 29 June 2010.
  115. ^ Software, A7. "Accessibility". Wallonia.be. Archived from the original on 23 May 2022. Retrieved 16 June 2022.
  116. ^ "Recognised NGOs". diplomatie. 23 March 2016. Archived from the original on 18 May 2022. Retrieved 16 June 2022.
  117. ^ "Brussels Pact". brussels.info. Archived from the original on 5 February 2017. Retrieved 4 February 2017.
  118. ^ NATO. "Summit meetings". NATO. Archived from the original on 8 September 2014. Retrieved 2 March 2017.
  119. ISBN 9780710603418
    .
  120. ^ NATO. "New NATO Headquarters". NATO. Archived from the original on 5 August 2017. Retrieved 8 January 2017.
  121. ^ McInally, John (December 2010). "Eurocontrol History Book" (PDF). Eurocontrol. Archived from the original (PDF) on 12 March 2016.
  122. ^ "Très riches et très pauvres". Lalibre.be. Retrieved 12 March 2013.
  123. ISBN 9781586037246. Archived
    from the original on 14 April 2021. Retrieved 25 October 2020.
  124. ^ a b c d e f g h i "Language selection - Statbel". www.statbel.fgov.be. Archived from the original on 30 April 2009. Retrieved 29 October 2018.
  125. ^ Population - Nationalités (XLS) (Report) (in French). Brussels Institute for Statistics and Analysis. Tabel 1.3.1.4 - Principales nationalités actuelles : 2022 (au 1er janvier). Retrieved 24 September 2023.
  126. ^ a b Dumont 1996, pp. 307–8, 312, 319.
  127. ^ Buron 2016, p. 80–82.
  128. ^ Van Parijs, Philippe. "Belgium's new linguistic challenges" (PDF). KVS Express (Supplement to Newspaper de Morgen) March–April 2007: Article from original source (pdf 4.9 MB) pages 34–36 republished by the Belgian Federal Government Service (ministry) of Economy – Directorate–general Statistics Belgium. Archived from the original (pdf 0.7 MB) on 13 June 2007. Retrieved 5 May 2007. – The linguistic situation in Belgium (and in particular various estimations of the population speaking French and Dutch in Brussels) is discussed in detail."Hier ging iets mis | KVS" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 25 March 2009. Retrieved 11 July 2008.
  129. ^ "Population et ménages" (PDF) (in French). IBSA Cellule statistique – Min. Région Bruxelles-Capitale (Statistical cell – Ministry of the Brussels-Capital Region). Retrieved 5 May 2007.[dead link]
  130. ^ "2.738.486 inwoners van vreemde afkomst in België op 01/01/2012" [2,738,486 inhabitants of foreign origin in Belgium on 01/01/2012]. Npdata.be (in Dutch). Archived from the original on 22 October 2019. Retrieved 12 March 2013.
  131. ^ a b Janssens, Rudi (2013). BRIO-taalbarometer 3: diversiteit als norm [BRIO language barometer 3: diversity as standard] (PDF) (in Dutch). Brussels Informatie-, Documentatie- en Onderzoekscentrum. Archived from the original (PDF) on 15 October 2018. Retrieved 26 May 2015.
  132. ^
    ISBN 9781853599460. Archived
    from the original on 15 April 2021. Retrieved 26 March 2013.
  133. ^
    ISBN 9789052013343. Archived
    from the original on 28 January 2020. Retrieved 26 April 2013.
  134. ^
    ISBN 9789033473807. Archived
    from the original on 28 January 2020. Retrieved 26 April 2013.
  135. ^
    ISBN 9033457822. Archived
    from the original on 14 April 2021. Retrieved 26 April 2013.
  136. ^ Janssens, Rudi (2008). Taalgebruik in Brussel en de plaats van het Nederlands — Enkele recente bevindingen (PDF) (in Dutch) (Brussels Studies, nº13 ed.). Archived (PDF) from the original on 15 March 2016. Retrieved 26 April 2013.
  137. ^
    ISBN 3871185973. Retrieved 26 April 2013.[permanent dead link
    ]
  138. ISBN 9780905028637. Archived
    from the original on 28 January 2020. Retrieved 26 April 2013.
  139. ISBN 9783110171501. Archived
    from the original on 28 January 2020. Retrieved 26 April 2013.
  140. ^ Vermeersch, Arthur J. (1981). De taalsituatie tijdens het Verenigd Koninkrijk der Nederlanden (1814-1830) (PDF) (in Dutch) (Taal en Sociale Integratie, IV ed.). Vrije Universiteit Brussel (VUB). pp. 389–404. Archived from the original (PDF) on 11 April 2016. Retrieved 26 April 2013.
  141. ISBN 2-8044-0525-7. Archived
    from the original on 14 April 2021. Retrieved 11 February 2021.
  142. ISBN 9782802801153. Archived
    from the original on 28 January 2020. Retrieved 26 April 2013.
  143. ISBN 2-8044-1216-4. Archived
    from the original on 15 June 2022. Retrieved 11 February 2021.
  144. ^
    Université Libre de Bruxelles (ULB). pp. 33–80. Archived from the original
    (PDF) on 11 April 2016. Retrieved 26 April 2013.
  145. ^
    ISBN 9789054871774. Archived
    (PDF) from the original on 26 May 2020. Retrieved 15 June 2022.
  146. ISBN 9782845862401. Archived
    from the original on 28 January 2020. Retrieved 26 April 2013.
  147. ISBN 9782804800239. Archived
    from the original on 28 January 2020. Retrieved 26 April 2013.
  148. ^
    ISBN 9782804117818. Archived
    from the original on 28 January 2020. Retrieved 26 April 2013.
  149. ISBN 9789042013759. Archived
    from the original on 28 January 2020. Retrieved 26 April 2013.
  150. ^
    ISBN 9782870370896. Archived
    from the original on 14 April 2021. Retrieved 26 April 2013.
  151. ISBN 9782870276631. Archived
    from the original on 28 January 2020. Retrieved 26 April 2013.
  152. ISBN 978-9089643407. Archived
    from the original on 14 April 2021. Retrieved 26 April 2013.
  153. ^
    ISBN 2950935680. Archived
    from the original on 14 April 2021. Retrieved 26 April 2013.
  154. ^ van Velthoven, Harry (1981). Taal- en onderwijspolitiek te Brussel (1878-1914) (PDF) (in Dutch) (Taal en Sociale Integratie, IV ed.). Vrije Universiteit Brussel (VUB). pp. 261–387. Archived from the original (PDF) on 11 April 2016. Retrieved 26 April 2013.
  155. ^
    ISBN 2801111260. Archived
    from the original on 11 May 2011. Retrieved 26 April 2013.
  156. ISBN 2-8044-0525-7. Archived
    from the original on 14 April 2021. Retrieved 11 February 2021.
  157. ^ a b Treffers-Daller 1994.
  158. ^ de Metsenaere, Machteld (1990). Thuis in gescheiden werelden — De migratoire en sociale aspecten van verfransing te Brussel in het midden van de 19e eeuw (PDF) (in Dutch) (BTNG-RBHC, XXI, 1990, nº 3-4 [383-412] ed.). Vrije Universiteit Brussel (VUB). Archived from the original (PDF) on 15 October 2018. Retrieved 26 April 2013.
  159. BTNG-RBHC (in Dutch). XXI (3–4): 383–412. Archived from the original
    (PDF) on 15 October 2018. Retrieved 23 December 2018.
  160. ISBN 9054872926. Archived from the original
    (PDF) on 15 October 2018. Retrieved 26 April 2013.
  161. ^
    ISBN 9054872926. Archived from the original
    (PDF) on 15 October 2018. Retrieved 26 April 2013.
  162. ^
    doi:10.4000/brussels.520. Archived
    from the original on 17 July 2018. Retrieved 17 July 2018.
  163. ISBN 9054872926. Archived from the original
    (PDF) on 15 October 2018. Retrieved 26 April 2013.
  164. ISBN 2-8044-0525-7. Archived
    from the original on 14 April 2021. Retrieved 11 February 2021.
  165. ISBN 9789002219634. Archived
    from the original on 14 April 2021. Retrieved 11 February 2021.
  166. ISBN 9782801112274. Archived
    from the original on 28 January 2020. Retrieved 26 April 2013.
  167. ISBN 9782870279878. Archived
    from the original on 28 January 2020. Retrieved 26 April 2013.
  168. ISBN 2-8044-0525-7. Archived
    from the original on 14 April 2021. Retrieved 11 February 2021.
  169. Belgian Senate. May 2007. Archived
    from the original on 17 November 2015. Retrieved 18 January 2009. La Belgique comprend quatre régions linguistiques : la région de langue française, la région de langue néerlandaise, la région bilingue de Bruxelles-Capitale et la région de langue allemande.
  170. ISBN 2-8044-0525-7
    .
  171. ISBN 2-8044-0525-7
    .
  172. ^ "La Flandre ne prendra pas Bruxelles..." La Libre Belgique (in French). 28 May 2006. Archived from the original on 15 February 2021. Retrieved 3 September 2008.
  173. ^ "Une question: partir ou rester?". La Libre Belgique (in French). 24 January 2005. Archived from the original on 28 November 2005. Retrieved 3 September 2008.
  174. ^ "Position commune des partis démocratiques francophones" (in French). Union des Francophones (UF), Province of Flemish Brabant. Archived from the original on 23 July 2011. Retrieved 22 July 2009.
  175. ^ "Bruxelles-capitale: une forte identité" (in French). France 2. 14 November 2007. Archived from the original on 11 October 2008. Retrieved 22 July 2009.
  176. ^ "Van autochtoon naar allochtoon". De Standaard (in Dutch). Archived from the original on 2 August 2020. Retrieved 5 May 2007. Meer dan de helft van de Brusselse bevolking is van vreemde afkomst. In 1961 was dat slechts 7 procent. [More than half of the Brussels' population is of foreign origin. In 1961 this was only 7 percent.]
  177. ^ Johan Winkler (1874). "De stad Brussel". Algemeen Nederduitsch en Friesch Dialecticon (in Dutch). Digitale Bibliotheek voor de Nederlandse Letteren. pp. 264–272. Archived from the original on 1 March 2022. Retrieved 1 March 2022.
  178. ^ Stéphany 2006, p. 63.
  179. ^ a b Elodie Blogie (28 January 2016). "75% des francophones revendiquent une identité religieuse". Le Soir.be (in French). Archived from the original on 31 January 2016. Retrieved 5 June 2017.
  180. ^ "Religious Freedom in Belgium". Berkeley Center for Religion, Peace, and World Affairs. Georgetown University. Archived from the original on 21 June 2015. Retrieved 21 June 2015.
  181. ^ Andy Furniere (13 March 2015). "Lessons in religion no longer obligatory in Belgium". Flanders Today. Archived from the original on 2 June 2017. Retrieved 9 June 2017.
  182. ^ Torrekens 2007.
  183. ^ a b "Bericht uit het Gewisse" [Message from the Gewisse]. www.npdata.be (in Dutch). 11 September 2008. Archived from the original on 21 November 2010. Retrieved 9 October 2010. In België wonen 628.751 moslims(Berekend aantal), 6,0% van de bevolking. In Brussel is dit 25,5%, in Wallonië 4,0%, in Vlaanderen 3,9% [In Belgium there are 628,751 Muslims (Calculated number), 6.0% of the population. In Brussels this is 25.5%, in Wallonia 4.0%, in Flanders 3.9%.]
  184. ^ "Brussels Architecture Sights". brussels.info. Archived from the original on 19 October 2017. Retrieved 18 October 2017.
  185. ^ "La Grand-Place, Brussels". whc.unesco.org. UNESCO World Heritage Centre. Archived from the original on 10 September 2016. Retrieved 6 February 2017.
  186. ^ "Manneken Pis". be.brussels. Archived from the original on 13 May 2017. Retrieved 3 February 2017.
  187. ^ "Le Palais de Justice de Bruxelles". whc.unesco.org. UNESCO World Heritage Centre. Archived from the original on 28 January 2017. Retrieved 3 February 2017.
  188. ^ "10 must-visit world-class Art Nouveau buildings in Brussels!". visit.brussels. Archived from the original on 19 October 2017. Retrieved 18 October 2017.
  189. ^ Stambolic, Ana. "The Most Remarkable Art Nouveau Houses In Brussels". Culture Trip. Archived from the original on 19 October 2017. Retrieved 18 October 2017.
  190. ^ "Stoclet House". whc.unesco.org. UNESCO World Heritage Centre. Archived from the original on 21 July 2016. Retrieved 8 January 2017.
  191. ^ "Top 10 of Art Deco buildings in Brussels". Brussleslife. Archived from the original on 19 October 2017. Retrieved 18 October 2017.
  192. ^ "Atomium – the iron landmark of Brussels". beneluxguide.com. Archived from the original on 4 February 2017. Retrieved 3 February 2017.
  193. ^ "The Atomium: How Do You Clean a Massive Molecule?". Spiegel Online. 8 October 2012. Archived from the original on 4 February 2017. Retrieved 3 February 2017.
  194. ^ "Museums in Brussels". Bruxelles.irisnet.be. Archived from the original on 6 June 2010. Retrieved 29 June 2010.
  195. ^ Fun, Everything is (4 August 2019). "Brussels Museums". Brussels Museums. Archived from the original on 27 July 2019. Retrieved 9 August 2019.
  196. ^ "Record number of 17,000 visitors attend Brussels' "Museum Night Fever" event". The Brussels Times. 24 February 2019. Archived from the original on 9 August 2019. Retrieved 9 August 2019.
  197. ^ "Street Art in Brussels: trail and artists". visit.brussels. Archived from the original on 11 December 2021. Retrieved 11 December 2021.
  198. ^ [1] Archived 26 August 2017 at the Wayback Machine Website of Kunstenfestivaldesarts
  199. ^ "Studio 4". Flagey. Archived from the original on 2 May 2019. Retrieved 13 August 2019.
  200. ^ "Flagey". Flagey. Archived from the original on 25 March 2019. Retrieved 13 August 2019.
  201. ^ Bruzz, Het ABC van Jean Demannez Archived 5 February 2017 at the Wayback Machine, 22 September 2015 (in Dutch)
  202. ^ "UNESCO - Ommegang of Brussels, an annual historical procession and popular festival". ich.unesco.org. Archived from the original on 15 May 2017. Retrieved 11 June 2021.
  203. ^ "Meyboom". be.brussels. Archived from the original on 14 May 2017. Retrieved 10 February 2017.
  204. ^ "Processional giants and dragons in Belgium and France – intangible heritage – Culture Sector – UNESCO". ich.unesco.org. Archived from the original on 21 November 2019. Retrieved 27 October 2017.
  205. ^ "Théâtre Royal de Toone". www.toone.be. Archived from the original on 21 August 2019. Retrieved 13 August 2019.
  206. ^ "The Iris Festival | Iris Festival". 12 August 2018. Archived from the original on 12 August 2018. Retrieved 13 August 2019.
  207. ^ "BIFFF". BIFFF. Archived from the original on 6 October 2019. Retrieved 24 October 2019.
  208. ^ "PROFITEZ DES BSF EXTRAS !". www.bsf.be. Archived from the original on 11 August 2019. Retrieved 13 August 2019.
  209. ^ "Zuidfoor". Zuidfoor. Archived from the original on 13 August 2019. Retrieved 13 August 2019.
  210. ^ "Bruxelles les Bains / Brussel Bad – La plus fun des plages urbaines !". Archived from the original on 13 August 2019. Retrieved 13 August 2019.
  211. ^ State 2004, p. 108.
  212. ^ "Winter in Brussels". visit.brussels. Archived from the original on 2 May 2019. Retrieved 13 August 2019.
  213. ^ Oliver, Lynne (11 April 2011). "Food Timeline: Brussels sprouts". Archived from the original on 27 April 2019. Retrieved 9 April 2012.
  214. ^ "Brussels 2 Stars MICHELIN MICHELIN Restaurants – the MICHELIN Guide Belgium". MICHELIN Guide. Archived from the original on 16 February 2021. Retrieved 10 February 2021.
  215. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original
     on 1 January 2022. Retrieved 4 February 2017.
  216. ISBN 978-0-89471-649-2. Archived
    from the original on 11 January 2023. Retrieved 26 May 2012.
  217. ^ "Food Museum, Belgium Endive". 29 July 2005. Archived from the original on 29 July 2005. Retrieved 4 February 2017.
  218. ^ "Rue Neuve most popular shopping street". www.xpats.com. 19 September 2013. Archived from the original on 19 October 2017. Retrieved 18 October 2017.
  219. ^ "Meir klopt voor het eerst Nieuwstraat als drukste winkelstraat". De Standaard (in Flemish). Archived from the original on 19 October 2017. Retrieved 18 October 2017.
  220. ^ a b "Shopping in Brussels". Archived from the original on 1 September 2018. Retrieved 31 August 2018.
  221. ^ "The Galerie de la Reine | Galeries royales saint Hubert à Bruxelles". Galeries Royales St-Hubert. Archived from the original on 1 September 2018. Retrieved 31 August 2018.
  222. ^ "Brussels Shopping Streets". Brussels.info. Archived from the original on 25 February 2017. Retrieved 24 February 2017.
  223. ^ Foster, Nick (24 January 2014). "Why stylish Dansaert district stands out in downtown Brussels". Financial Times. Archived from the original on 19 October 2017. Retrieved 18 October 2017.
  224. ^ "Avenue Louise joins Belgium's most expensive shopping streets". www.thebulletin.be. 19 November 2015. Archived from the original on 1 September 2018. Retrieved 31 August 2018.
  225. ^ "Flea Markets in Brussels". Flea Market Insiders. 11 September 2015. Archived from the original on 25 February 2017. Retrieved 24 February 2017.
  226. ^ "Sablon". City of Brussels. Archived from the original on 25 February 2017. Retrieved 24 February 2017.
  227. ^ "Midi Market". Brusselslife. Archived from the original on 7 July 2017. Retrieved 8 July 2017.
  228. ^ "Portail officiel du sport en fédération Wallonie-Bruxelles" [Official sports portal in the Wallonia-Brussels Federation]. sport-adeps.be (in French). Archived from the original on 16 November 2017. Retrieved 11 November 2017.
  229. ^ "Doe aan sport" [Do sports]. Sport.Vlaanderen (in Dutch). Archived from the original on 3 January 2018. Retrieved 11 November 2017.
  230. ^ "Stade Roi Baudouin – Koning Boudewijnstadion". The Stadium Guide. Archived from the original on 19 October 2017. Retrieved 18 October 2017.
  231. ^ "Alessandro Del Piero 'turned down Liverpool move due to Heysel'". Metro News. 6 September 2012. Archived from the original on 8 August 2013. Retrieved 12 August 2013.
  232. ^ Anderlecht clinch 34th league title Archived 23 September 2017 at the Wayback Machine. Rsssf.com. Retrieved on 12 August 2013.
  233. ^ Belgium – List of Champions Archived 19 October 2020 at the Wayback Machine. Rsssf.com. Retrieved on 19 February 2014.
  234. ^ "Cantillon – Museum". www.cantillon.be. Archived from the original on 27 March 2017. Retrieved 26 March 2017.
  235. ^ "Brussels Economy and Business". Brussels.info. Archived from the original on 11 February 2017. Retrieved 26 March 2017.
  236. ^ "Regional GDP per capita ranged from 31% to 626% of the EU average in 2017" (Press release). Eurostat. 28 February 2018. Archived from the original on 2 September 2019. Retrieved 14 March 2019.
  237. ^ "EURES – Labour market information – Région De Bruxelles-Capitale / Brussels Hoofdstedelijk Gewest – European Commission". ec.europa.eu. Archived from the original on 27 March 2017. Retrieved 26 March 2017.
  238. Flandersnews.be. 6 January 2014. Archived from the original
    on 23 April 2014. Retrieved 23 April 2014.
  239. ^ "Cost of Living in Belgium". Expatistan, cost of living comparisons. Archived from the original on 27 March 2017. Retrieved 26 March 2017.
  240. ^ "Cvent's Top 25 Meeting Destinations in the Europe". www.cvent.com. Archived from the original on 12 October 2017. Retrieved 6 November 2017.
  241. ^ "BX1, La chaîne d'info de Bruxelles". BX1. Archived from the original on 12 August 2019. Retrieved 13 August 2019.
  242. ^ "Nieuws uit Brussel en de beste cultuurtips". www.bruzz.be. Archived from the original on 2 May 2019. Retrieved 13 August 2019.
  243. ^ "Brussels bureau - Latest episodes, latest news and updates about". euronews. Archived from the original on 11 December 2021. Retrieved 11 December 2021.
  244. ^ "What makes the RMA so special?". Belgian Royal Military Academy. Archived from the original on 28 December 2007. Retrieved 9 December 2007.
  245. ^ "Logement | RMA". www.rma.ac.be (in French). Archived from the original on 15 June 2022. Retrieved 23 October 2021.
  246. Université Libre de Bruxelles. Archived from the original
    on 3 December 2007. Retrieved 9 December 2007.
  247. ^ "About the University: Culture and History". Vrije Universiteit Brussel. Archived from the original on 16 June 2015. Retrieved 9 December 2007.
  248. ^ "About the University: Culture and History". www.vub.ac.be. Archived from the original on 22 October 2017. Retrieved 18 October 2017.
  249. ^ "Institution: Historique". Facultés Universitaires Saint Louis. Archived from the original on 23 December 2007. Retrieved 9 December 2007.
  250. ^ "Fusion UCL - Saint-Louis : un nouveau logo pour des collaborations renforcées". UCLouvain (in French). Archived from the original on 23 October 2021. Retrieved 23 October 2021.
  251. ^ "L'histoire de l'UCLouvain à Bruxelles". Université catholique de Louvain. Archived from the original on 14 November 2007. Retrieved 9 December 2007.
  252. ^ "UCLouvain Bruxelles Saint-Gilles". UCLouvain. Archived from the original on 7 November 2018.
  253. ^ "KU Leuven organisational chart: KU Leuven, Campus Brussels". Katholieke Universiteit Leuven. Archived from the original on 11 January 2015. Retrieved 11 January 2015.
  254. ^ "Petite histoire du Conservatoire royal de Bruxelles". Conservatoire Royal. Archived from the original on 23 September 2017. Retrieved 9 December 2007.
  255. Koninklijk Conservatorium. Archived from the original
    on 13 October 2006. Retrieved 9 December 2007.
  256. ^ "ISB Profile". International School of Brussels. Archived from the original on 17 October 2007. Retrieved 9 December 2007.
  257. ^ "Background". Schola Europaea. Archived from the original on 31 December 2007. Retrieved 9 December 2007.
  258. ^ "Public libraries". be.brussels. Archived from the original on 18 September 2017. Retrieved 18 October 2017.
  259. ^ "Home • KBR". KBR. Archived from the original on 24 September 2016. Retrieved 11 December 2021.
  260. ^ ROBERT, Florence. "Bibliothèques". Bibliothèques (in French). Archived from the original on 11 December 2021. Retrieved 11 December 2021.
  261. ^ "Departments - University Library VUB". biblio.vub.ac.be. Archived from the original on 11 December 2021. Retrieved 11 December 2021.
  262. ^ "Bienvenue - Bibliothèque - Université Saint-Louis - Bruxelles". www.usaintlouis.be. Archived from the original on 22 November 2021. Retrieved 11 December 2021.
  263. ^ "The Libraries of Université catholique de Louvain". UCLouvain. Archived from the original on 11 December 2021. Retrieved 11 December 2021.
  264. ^ "Permanent Exhibition " Dinosaur Gallery". Royal Belgian Institute of Natural Sciences. Archived from the original on 19 October 2017. Retrieved 18 October 2017.
  265. ^ "Planetarium of Brussels". Brussels' Museums. Archived from the original on 11 February 2017. Retrieved 10 February 2017.
  266. ^ "Belgian Association of Hospitals". www.hospitals.be. Archived from the original on 9 October 2007. Retrieved 18 October 2017.
  267. ^ "Welke taal moeten de Brusselse ziekenhuizen gebruiken?" [Which language do hospitals in Brussels have to use?]. www.zorg-en-gezondheid.be (in Dutch). Agency for Care and Health. Archived from the original on 4 March 2021. Retrieved 18 September 2019.
  268. ^ "Brussels and Antwerp have worst traffic". Flanders Today. 27 June 2012. Archived from the original on 12 December 2013. Retrieved 8 December 2013.
  269. ^ "Brussels.info – Brussels Airports". www.brussels.info. Archived from the original on 19 October 2017. Retrieved 18 October 2017.
  270. ^ "Port of Brussels". Port of Brussels. Archived from the original on 4 August 2017. Retrieved 4 August 2017.
  271. ^ "Distance between Brussels, Belgium, and Amsterdam, the Netherlands". Distances Technology. Archived from the original on 12 February 2018. Retrieved 11 February 2018.
  272. ^ "Brussels Metro and Tram Network". Railway Technology. Archived from the original on 6 March 2016. Retrieved 10 March 2016.
  273. ^ a b c "The network and vehicles". STIB-MIVB (in French). Archived from the original on 27 February 2017. Retrieved 27 February 2017.
  274. ^ "Trams are coming back". New Scientist (by Ian Yearsley). 21 December 1972.
  275. ^ a b Walker, Lauren (28 June 2021). "Night bus services restart in Brussels". The Brussels Times. Archived from the original on 15 June 2022. Retrieved 19 May 2022.
  276. ^ "OUR NIGHT NETWORK". Brussels Intercommunal Transport Company. Archived from the original on 2 March 2022. Retrieved 19 May 2022.
  277. ^ "Noctis". brusselslife.be. 8 April 2010. Archived from the original on 4 December 2020. Retrieved 19 May 2022.
  278. ^ "Brussels and Antwerp have worst traffic". Flanders Today. 27 June 2012. Archived from the original on 12 December 2013. Retrieved 8 December 2013.
  279. ^ "Belgian N roads". Autosnelwegen.net. Archived from the original on 29 May 2010. Retrieved 29 June 2010.
  280. ^ "Circulation plan". Archived from the original on 14 May 2015. Retrieved 26 August 2015.
  281. ^ "Zones de police". www.policelocale.be (in French). Archived from the original on 25 March 2017. Retrieved 24 March 2017.
  282. ^ "SIAMU". be.brussels. Archived from the original on 25 March 2017. Retrieved 24 March 2017.
  283. ^ "Parks and green spaces". be.brussels. Archived from the original on 3 February 2017. Retrieved 10 February 2017.
  284. ^ "Brussels". efus.eu. European Forum for Urban Security. 21 January 2012. Archived from the original on 8 August 2021. Retrieved 15 February 2022.

Bibliography

See also: Timeline of Brussels § Bibliography

External links