Calabria
Calabria
Καλαβρία (Greek) | ||
---|---|---|
ISO 3166 code IT-78 | | |
HDI (2021) | 0.848[2] very high · 20th of 21 | |
NUTS Region | ITF | |
Website | www.regione.calabria.it |
Calabria[a] is a region in Southern Italy. It is a peninsula bordered by Basilicata to the north, the Ionian Sea to the east, the Strait of Messina to the southwest, which separates it from Sicily, and the Tyrrhenian Sea to the west. It has almost 2 million residents across a total area of 15,222 km2 (5,877 sq mi). Catanzaro is the region's capital.
Calabria is the birthplace of the
In Roman times it was part of the Regio III Lucania et Bruttii, a region of
In Calabria there are three historical ethnolinguistics minorities: the Griko people, speaking Calabrian Greek; the Arbëreshë people; and the Occitans of Guardia Piemontese. This extraordinary linguistic diversity makes the region an object of study for linguists from all over the world.
Calabria is famous for its crystal clear sea waters and is dotted with ancient villages, castles and archaeological parks. Three national parks are found in the region: the Pollino National Park (which is the largest in Italy), the Sila National Park and the Aspromonte National Park.
Etymology
Starting in the third century BC, the name Calabria was originally given to the Adriatic coast of the Salento peninsula in modern Apulia.[7] In the late first century BC this name came to extend to the entirety of the Salento, when the Roman emperor Augustus divided Italy into regions. The whole region of Apulia received the name Regio II Apulia et Calabria. By this time modern Calabria was still known as Bruttium, after the Bruttians who inhabited the region. Later in the seventh century AD, the Byzantine Empire created the Duchy of Calabria from the Salento and the Ionian part of Bruttium. Even though the Calabrian part of the duchy was conquered by the Lombards during the eighth and ninth centuries AD, the Byzantines continued to use the name Calabria for their remaining territory in Bruttium.[8]
Originally the Greeks used Italoi to indicate the native population of modern Calabria, which according to some ancient Greek writers was derived from a legendary king of the Oenotri, Italus.[9][10]
Over time the Greeks started to use Italoi for the rest of the southern Italian peninsula as well. After the Roman conquest of the region, the name was used for the entire Italian peninsula and eventually the Alpine region too.[11] [12][13][14][15][16]
Geography
The region is generally known as the "toe" of
Three mountain ranges are present:
The Aspromonte massif forms the southernmost tip of the Italian peninsula bordered by the sea on three sides. This unique mountainous structure reaches its highest point at Montalto, at 1,995 m (6,545 ft), and is full of wide, man-made terraces that slope down toward the sea.
Most of the lower terrain in Calabria has been agricultural for centuries, and exhibits indigenous scrubland as well as introduced plants such as the
Climate
Calabria's climate is influenced by the sea and mountains. The Mediterranean climate is typical of the coastal areas with considerable differences in temperature and rainfall between the seasons, with an average low of 8 °C (46 °F) during the winter months and an average high of 30 °C (86 °F) during the summer months. Mountain areas have a typical mountainous climate with frequent snow during winter. The erratic behavior of the Tyrrhenian Sea can bring heavy rainfall on the western slopes of the region, while hot air from Africa makes the east coast of Calabria dry and warm. The mountains that run along the region also influence the climate and temperature of the region. The east coast is much warmer and has wider temperature ranges than the west coast. The geography of the region causes more rain to fall along the west coast than that of the east coast, which occurs mainly during winter and autumn and less during the summer months.[25]
Below are the two extremes of climate in Calabria, the warm mediterranean subtype on the coastline and the highland climate of Monte Scuro.
Climate data for Reggio Calabria (1971–2000 normals) | |||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year |
Record high °C (°F) | 24.6 (76.3) |
25.2 (77.4) |
27.0 (80.6) |
30.4 (86.7) |
35.2 (95.4) |
42.0 (107.6) |
44.2 (111.6) |
42.4 (108.3) |
37.6 (99.7) |
34.4 (93.9) |
29.9 (85.8) |
26.0 (78.8) |
44.2 (111.6) |
Mean daily maximum °C (°F) | 15.3 (59.5) |
15.6 (60.1) |
17.1 (62.8) |
19.3 (66.7) |
23.8 (74.8) |
27.9 (82.2) |
31.1 (88.0) |
31.3 (88.3) |
28.2 (82.8) |
23.9 (75.0) |
19.7 (67.5) |
16.6 (61.9) |
22.5 (72.5) |
Daily mean °C (°F) | 11.8 (53.2) |
11.8 (53.2) |
13.0 (55.4) |
15.1 (59.2) |
19.2 (66.6) |
23.2 (73.8) |
26.4 (79.5) |
26.7 (80.1) |
23.7 (74.7) |
19.8 (67.6) |
15.9 (60.6) |
13.1 (55.6) |
18.3 (65.0) |
Mean daily minimum °C (°F) | 8.2 (46.8) |
7.9 (46.2) |
9.0 (48.2) |
10.9 (51.6) |
14.7 (58.5) |
18.6 (65.5) |
21.6 (70.9) |
22.1 (71.8) |
19.3 (66.7) |
15.7 (60.3) |
12.1 (53.8) |
9.6 (49.3) |
14.1 (57.5) |
Record low °C (°F) | 1.0 (33.8) |
-0.0 (32.0) |
0.0 (32.0) |
4.6 (40.3) |
7.8 (46.0) |
10.8 (51.4) |
14.6 (58.3) |
14.4 (57.9) |
11.2 (52.2) |
6.6 (43.9) |
4.4 (39.9) |
2.6 (36.7) |
-0.0 (32.0) |
Average precipitation mm (inches) | 69.6 (2.74) |
61.5 (2.42) |
50.7 (2.00) |
40.4 (1.59) |
19.8 (0.78) |
10.9 (0.43) |
7.0 (0.28) |
11.9 (0.47) |
47.5 (1.87) |
72.5 (2.85) |
81.7 (3.22) |
73.3 (2.89) |
546.8 (21.54) |
Average precipitation days (≥ 1 mm) | 9.3 | 9.1 | 7.5 | 6.6 | 2.8 | 1.5 | 1.3 | 1.9 | 4.4 | 7.0 | 8.7 | 8.3 | 68.4 |
Source: Servizio Meteorologico (1971–2000 data)[26] |
Climate data for Monte Scuro (1991–2020 normals, extremes 1971-2020); 1671 m asl | |||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year |
Record high °C (°F) | 21.0 (69.8) |
15.4 (59.7) |
22.0 (71.6) |
21.4 (70.5) |
24.2 (75.6) |
29.4 (84.9) |
32.0 (89.6) |
33.2 (91.8) |
26.6 (79.9) |
29.4 (84.9) |
22.6 (72.7) |
17.0 (62.6) |
33.2 (91.8) |
Mean daily maximum °C (°F) | 2.7 (36.9) |
2.8 (37.0) |
5.4 (41.7) |
8.5 (47.3) |
13.6 (56.5) |
17.9 (64.2) |
20.4 (68.7) |
20.7 (69.3) |
15.7 (60.3) |
12.5 (54.5) |
7.6 (45.7) |
3.4 (38.1) |
10.9 (51.7) |
Daily mean °C (°F) | 0.1 (32.2) |
-0.0 (32.0) |
2.2 (36.0) |
5.1 (41.2) |
9.8 (49.6) |
14.1 (57.4) |
16.4 (61.5) |
16.8 (62.2) |
12.2 (54.0) |
9.3 (48.7) |
5.1 (41.2) |
1.2 (34.2) |
7.7 (45.9) |
Mean daily minimum °C (°F) | −1.9 (28.6) |
−2.2 (28.0) |
−0.2 (31.6) |
2.3 (36.1) |
6.5 (43.7) |
10.6 (51.1) |
12.8 (55.0) |
13.4 (56.1) |
9.5 (49.1) |
6.9 (44.4) |
3.0 (37.4) |
−0.7 (30.7) |
4.6 (40.3) |
Record low °C (°F) | −14.2 (6.4) |
−13.0 (8.6) |
−13.4 (7.9) |
−10.0 (14.0) |
−1.6 (29.1) |
0.0 (32.0) |
3.8 (38.8) |
0.0 (32.0) |
−0.2 (31.6) |
−4.2 (24.4) |
−9.6 (14.7) |
−14.2 (6.4) |
−14.2 (6.4) |
Average precipitation mm (inches) | 86.2 (3.39) |
96.7 (3.81) |
73.3 (2.89) |
62.6 (2.46) |
50.9 (2.00) |
28.3 (1.11) |
23.0 (0.91) |
30.2 (1.19) |
52.7 (2.07) |
101.6 (4.00) |
107.8 (4.24) |
102.1 (4.02) |
815.4 (32.10) |
Average precipitation days (≥ 1.0 mm) | 10.67 | 9.17 | 8.83 | 8.83 | 7.13 | 4.57 | 3.00 | 3.57 | 7.57 | 8.23 | 10.57 | 11.8 | 93.94 |
Average relative humidity (%)
|
82.43 | 80.58 | 76.74 | 74.50 | 71.93 | 68.74 | 66.72 | 66.32 | 75.42 | 75.47 | 78.10 | 82.39 | 74.95 |
Average dew point °C (°F) | −3.0 (26.6) |
−3.3 (26.1) |
−1.8 (28.8) |
0.6 (33.1) |
4.6 (40.3) |
7.9 (46.2) |
9.5 (49.1) |
9.7 (49.5) |
7.9 (46.2) |
4.9 (40.8) |
1.5 (34.7) |
−1.6 (29.1) |
3.1 (37.5) |
Mean monthly sunshine hours | 81.7 | 85.9 | 133.1 | 140.4 | 204.8 | 242.0 | 279.0 | 279.0 | 160.7 | 140.9 | 89.5 | 56.8 | 1,893.8 |
Source: |
Geology
Calabria is commonly considered part of the "Calabrian Arc", an arc-shaped geographic domain extending from the southern part of the
The
The geology of Calabria has been studied for more than a century.[33][34][35] The earlier works were mainly dedicated to the evolution of the basement rocks of the area. The Neogene sedimentary successions were merely regarded as "post-orogenic" infill of "neo-tectonic" tensional features. In the course of time, however, a shift can be observed in the temporal significance of these terms, from post-Eocene to post-Early Miocene to post-middle Pleistocene.[30]
The region is seismically active and is generally ascribed to the re-establishment of an equilibrium after the latest (mid-Pleistocene) deformation phase. Some authors believe that the subduction process is still ongoing, which is a matter of debate.[36]
History
Calabria has one of the oldest records of human presence in Italy, which date back to around 700,000 BC when a type of Homo erectus evolved leaving traces around coastal areas.[37] During the Paleolithic period Stone Age humans created the "Bos Primigenius", a figure of a bull on a cliff which dates back around 12,000 years in the Romito Cave in the town of Papasidero. When the Neolithic period came the first villages were founded around 3,500 BC.[38]
Antiquity
Around 1500 BC a tribe called the Oenotri ("vine-cultivators"), settled in the region.[39] Ancient sources state they were Greeks who were led to the region by their king, Oenotrus.[citation needed] However it is believed they were an ancient Italic people who spoke an Italic language.[40][41][42] During the eighth and seventh centuries BC, Greek settlers founded many colonies (settlements) on the coast of southern Italy. In Calabria they founded Chone (
Rhegion was the birthplace of one of the famed
The Greek cities of Calabria came under pressure from the
Romanisation
At the beginning of the 3rd century BC the cities of southern Italy, which had been allies of the Samnites, were still independent[48] but inevitably came into conflict as a result of Rome's continuous expansion[49][50] as their expansion in central and northern Italy had not been sufficient to provide new arable lands they needed.[51]
Pyrrhic War
During the Pyrrhic War (280–275 BC) the Lucanians and Bruttii sided with Pyrrhus and provided contingents which fought with his army.
After Pyrrhus was eventually defeated, to avoid Roman revenge the Bruttii submitted willingly and gave up half of the Sila, a mountainous plateau valuable for its pitch and timber.[52] Rome subjugated southern Italy by means of treaties with the cities.[53]
Punic Wars
During the Second Punic War (218–201 BC) the Bruttii allied with Hannibal, who sent Hanno, one of his commanders, to Calabria. Hanno marched toward Capua (in Campania) with Bruttian soldiers to take them to Hannibal's headquarters there twice, but he was defeated on both occasions. When his campaign in Italy came to a dead end, Hannibal took refuge in Calabria, whose steep mountains provided protection against the Roman legions. He set up his headquarters in Kroton and stayed there for four years until he was recalled to Carthage. The Romans fought a battle with him near Kroton, but its details are unknown. Many Calabrian cities surrendered to the Romans[54] and Calabria was put under a military commander.
Roman era
Nearly a decade after the war, the Romans set up colonies in Calabria: at Tempsa and Kroton (Croto in Latin) in 194 BC, Copiae in the territory of Thurii (Thurium in Latin) in 193 BC, and Vibo Valentia in the territory of Hipponion in 192 BC.[55]
Starting in the third century BC, the name Calabria was given to the Adriatic coast of the Salento peninsula in modern Apulia.[56] In the late first century BC this name came to extend to the entirety of the Salento, when the Roman emperor Augustus divided Italy into regions and modern Calabria was known as Regio III Lucania et Bruttii.[57]
After sacking Rome in 410, Alaric I (King of the Visigoths) went to Calabria with the intention of sailing to Africa. He contracted malaria and died in Cosentia (Cosenza), probably of fever. Legend has it that he along with the treasure of Rome were buried under the bed of the River Busento.[58]
Middle Ages
With the fall of the western part of the Roman Empire in 476, Italy was taken over by the Germanic chieftain Odoacer and later became part of the
Cassiodorus was at the heart of the administration of the Ostrogothic kingdom. Theodoric made him quaestor sacri palatii (quaestor of the sacred palace, the senior legal authority) in 507, governor of Lucania and Bruttium, consul in 514 and magister officiorum (master of offices, one of the most senior administrative officials) in 523. He was praetorian prefect (chief minister) under the successors of Theodoric: under Athalaric (Theodoric's grandson, reigned 526–34) in 533 and, between 535 and 537, under Theodahad (Theodoric's nephew, reigned 534–36) and Witiges (Theodoric's grandson-in-law, reigned, 536–40).[62] The major works of Cassiodorus, besides the mentioned bibles, were the Historia Gothorum, a history of the Goths, the Variae and account of his administrative career and the Institutiones divinarum et saecularium litterarum, an introduction to the study of the sacred scriptures and the liberal arts which was very influential in the Middle Ages.
Around the year 800,
Under the Byzantine dominion, between the end of the 9th and the beginning of the 10th century, Calabria was one of the first regions of Italy to introduce silk production to Europe. According to André Guillou,[66] mulberry trees for the production of raw silk were introduced to southern Italy by the Byzantines at the end of the ninth century. Around 1050 the theme of Calabria had 24,000, mulberry trees cultivated for their foliage, and their number tended to expand.[67]
At the beginning of the tenth century (c. 903),
In the 1060s the
In 1098,
In 1147, Roger II of Sicily attacked Corinth and Thebes, two important centers of Byzantine silk production, capturing the weavers and their equipment and establishing his own silkworks in Calabria,[70] thereby causing the Norman silk industry to flourish.
In 1194,
While the cultivation of
Early modern period
In the
In 1442 the Aragonese took control under
In 1466, King Louis XI decided to develop a national silk industry in Lyon and called a large number of Italian workers, mainly from Calabria. The fame of the master weavers of Catanzaro spread throughout France and they were invited to Lyon to teach the techniques of weaving.[78] In 1470, one of these weavers, known in France as Jean Le Calabrais, invented the first prototype of a Jacquard-type loom.[79] He introduced a new kind of machine which was able to work the yarns faster and more precisely. Over the years, improvements to the loom were ongoing.[80]
Charles V of Spain formally recognized the growth of the silk industry of Catanzaro in 1519 by allowing the city to establish a consulate of the silk craft, charged with regulating and check in the various stages of a production that flourished throughout the sixteenth century. At the moment of the creation of its guild, the city declared that it had over 500 looms. By 1660, when the town had about 16,000 inhabitants, its silk industry kept 1,000 looms, and at least 5,000 people, busy. The silk textiles of Catanzaro were not only sold at the kingdom's markets, they were also exported to Venice, France, Spain and England.[81]
In the 16th century, Calabria was characterized by a strong demographic and economic development, mainly due to the increasing demand of silk products and the simultaneous growth of prices, and became one of the most important Mediterranean markets for silk.[82]
In 1563 philosopher and natural scientist Bernardino Telesio wrote "On the Nature of Things according to their Own Principles" and pioneered early modern empiricism. He would also influence the works of Francis Bacon, René Descartes, Giordano Bruno, Tommaso Campanella and Thomas Hobbes.[83][84][85] In 1602 philosopher and poet Tommaso Campanella wrote his most famous work, "The City of the Sun" and would later defend Galileo Galilei during his first trial with his work "A Defense of Galileo", which was written in 1616 and published in 1622.[86] In 1613 philosopher and economist Antonio Serra wrote "A Short Treatise on the Wealth and Poverty of Nations" and was a pioneer in the Mercantilist tradition.[87]
During the 17th century silk production in Calabria begin to suffer by the strong competition of new-raising competitors in Italian Peninsula and Europe (France), but also the increasing import from Ottoman Empire and Persia.
Foundation of the historical Italo-Albanian College and Library in 1732[88] by Pope Clement XII transferred from San Benedetto Ullano to San Demetrio Corone in 1794.
In 1783 a series of earthquakes across Calabria caused around 50,000 deaths and much damage to property, so that many of the buildings in the region were rebuilt after this date.
At the end of the 18th century the French took control and in 1808 Napoleon Bonaparte gave the Kingdom of Naples to his brother-in-law Joachim Murat. Murat controlled the kingdom until the return of the Bourbons in 1815. The population of Calabria in 1844 was 1,074,558.[89]
Calabria experienced a series of peasant revolts as part of the European Revolutions of 1848. This set the stage for the eventual unification with the rest of Italy in 1861, when the Kingdom of Naples was brought into the union by Giuseppe Garibaldi. The unification was orchestrated by Great Britain in an attempt to nationalize the production of sulfur from the two volcanoes located in Naples and Sicily respectively. The Aspromonte was the scene of a famous battle of the unification of Italy. During the late 19th or early 20th century, pianist and composer Alfonso Rendano invented the "Third Pedal",[90] which augmented the interpretative resources of the piano.
The ancient Greek colonies from Naples and to the south, had been completely
During the 13th century a French chronicler who traveled through Calabria stated that "the peasants of Calabria spoke nothing but Greek" given he had traveled to areas where Greek was still available. But the educated classes spoke Italian. Indeed, formal Italian has been taught in schools throughout Italy for nearly two centuries, causing the ancient languages and dialects to continually disappear, much to the chagrin of the cultural community. These lost dialects continue to thrive to this day in North America and Australia, places where Italians emigrated to, on account of the Diaspora.
Modern era
On 19 August 1860, Calabria was invaded from Sicily by Giuseppe Garibaldi and his Redshirts as part of the Expedition of the Thousand.[91] Through King Francesco II of Naples had dispatched 16,000 soldiers to stop the Redshirts, who numbered about 3,500, after a token battle at Reggio Calabria won by the Redshirts, all resistance ceased and Garibaldi was welcomed as a liberator from the oppressive rule of the Bourbons wherever he went in Calabria.[91] Calabria together with the rest of the Kingdom of Naples was incorporated in 1861 into the Kingdom of Italy. Garibaldi planned to complete the Risorgimento by invading Rome, still ruled by the Pope protected by a French garrison, and began with semi-official encouragement to raise an army.[92] Subsequently, King Victor Emmanuel II decided the possibility of war with France was too dangerous, and on 29 August 1862 Garibaldi's base in the Calabrian town of Aspromonte was attacked by the Regio Esercito.[93] The Battle of Aspromonte ended with the Redshirts defeated with several being executed after surrendering while Garibaldi was badly wounded.[93]
In the newly unified Kingdom of Italy, there were significant differences in level of economic development between the Nord (north) of Italy and the Mezzogiorno (the south of Italy). Calabria together with the rest of the Mezzogiorno was neglected under the Kingdom of Italy with the general feeling in Rome being that the region was hopelessly backward and poor. In the late 19th century about 70% of the population of the Mezzogiorno were illiterate as the government never invested in education for the south.
On 28 December 1908, Calabria together with Sicily was devastated by an earthquake and then by a tsunami caused by the earthquake, causing about 80, 000 deaths.[98] Within hours of the disaster, ships of the British and Russian navies had arrived on the coast to assist the survivors, but it took the Regia Marina two days to send a relief expedition from Naples.[98] The bumbling and ineffectual response of the Italian authorities to the disaster caused by feuding officials who did not wish to co-operate with each other contributed to the high death toll as it took weeks for aid to reach some villages and caused much resentment in Calabria.[98] To offset widespread criticism that the northern-dominated government in Rome did not care about the people of Calabria, King Victor Emmanuel III personally took over the relief operation and toured the destroyed villages of Calabria, which won the House of Savoy a measure of popularity in the region.[99] Most notably, after the king took charge of the relief efforts, the feuding between officials ceased and relief aid was delivered with considerably more efficiency, winning Victor Emmanuel the gratitude of the Calabrians.[99]
Fascism was not popular in Calabria. In December 1924 when a false rumor spread in Reggio Calabria that Benito Mussolini had resigned as Prime Minister because of the Matteotti affair, joyous celebrations took place in the city that lasted all night.[100] In the morning, the people of Reggio Calabria learned that Mussolini was still prime minister, but several Fascist officials were dismissed for not suppressing the celebrations. The landed aristocracy and gentry of Calabria, through generally not ideologically committed to Fascism, saw the Fascist regime as a force for order and social stability, and supported the dictatorship.[101] Likewise, the prefects and the policemen of Calabria were conservatives who saw themselves as serving King Victor Emmanuel III first and Mussolini second, but supported Fascism as preferable to Socialism and Communism and persecuted anti-Fascists.[101] Traditional elites in Calabria joined the Fascist Party to pursue their own interests, and local branches of Fascist Party were characterized by much jostling for power and influence between elite families.[102] Under the Fascist regime, several concentration camps were built in Calabria and used to imprison foreigners whose presence in Italy was considered undesirable, such as Chinese immigrants and foreign Jews (though not Italian Jews) together with members of the Romani minority, whose nomadic lifestyle was viewed as anti-social.[103] The camps which operated from 1938 to 1943 were not death camps, and the majority of those imprisoned survived, but conditions were harsh for the imprisoned.[104]
On 3 September 1943, British and Canadian troops of the British 8th Army landed in Calabria in
The British historian Jonathan Dunnage wrote that there was an "institutional continuity" between the civil servants of the Liberal, Fascist and post-Fascist eras in Calabria as each change of regime saw the bureaucrats of the region adjust to whatever regime was in power in Rome and there was no purge of civil servants either after 1922 or 1943.[109] The "institutional continuity" of the bureaucracy of Calabria were committed to preserving the social structure.[109] On 2 June 1946 referendum, Calabria like the rest of the Mezzogiorno voted solidly to retain the monarchy. The clientistic political system in Calabria under which elite families handed out patronage to their supporters and used violence against their opponents, which was the prevailing norm in the Liberal and Fascist eras continued after 1945.[110] During the Second World War, the already low living standards of Calabria declined further and the region was notorious as one of the most violent and lawless areas of Italy.[111] Attempts by the peasants of Calabria to take over the land owned by the elite were usually resisted by the authorities. On 28 October 1949 in Melissa the police opened fire on peasants who had seized the land of a local baron, killing three men who were shot in the back as they attempted to flee.[112] Between 1949 and 1966 another wave of migration took place with the peak year of migration being 1957 with some 38, 090 Calabrians leaving that year.[97]
Under the First Republic, starting in the 1960s, investment plans were launched under which Italian state sponsored industrialisation and attempted to improve the infrastructure of Calabria by building modern roads, railroads, ports, etc.[113] The plan was a notable failure with the infrastructure projects going wildly over-budget and taking far longer to complete then scheduled; for an example, construction started on the A3 highway in 1964 intended to link Reggio Calabria to Salerno, which was as of 2016 still unfinished.[113] The failure to complete the A3 highway after 52 years of effort is regarded as a scandal in Italy, and many parts of Calabria were described as an "industrial graveyard" full of the closed down steel mills and chemical plants that all went bankrupt.[113] From July 1970 to February 1971 the Reggio revolt took place as the decision to make Catanzaro instead of Reggio the regional capital prompted massive protests.[114] The compromise decision to make Catanzaro the executive capital and Reggio the administrative capital has led to a bloated and inefficient administration.[113] The high unemployment rate in Calabria has led to extensive migration and Calabria's biggest export has been its own people as Calabrians have moved to either other parts of Italy and abroad, especially to the United States, Canada and Argentina, to seek a better life.[115] In 2016, it was estimated that 18% of the people born in Calabria were living abroad.[97]
Economy
The Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of Calabria is subdivided as follows: service industry (28.94%), financial activities and real estate (21.09%), trade, tourism, transportation and communication (19.39%), taxation (11.49%), manufacturing (8.77%), construction (6.19%) and agriculture (4.13%). GDP per capita is 2.34 times less and unemployment is 4 times higher than in Lombardy.[116] Calabria's economy is still based mainly on agriculture.
The economy of the region is strongly affected by the presence of the 'Ndrangheta (the local Mafia syndicate).[117]
Agriculture
Calabria is agriculturally rich, with the Italy's second highest number of
The
The
In Calabria, there are 3
Calabria produces about a quarter of Italy's
Minor fruits such as
There is special research
Italian Export of citrus oils in 2018[135] |
Value |
---|---|
Bergamot | $2,555,000 |
Orange | $3,770,000 |
Lemon | $60,100,000 |
Lime | $0 |
Citrus, nes | $75,400,000 |
Jasmine | $0 |
The
In the province of Catanzaro, between San Floro[137] and Cortale,[138] the ancient tradition of sericulture is still kept alive, thanks to young generations.
Calabria is the largest producer of
The region boasts a very ancient tradition in the cultivation and production of liquorice. The eighty percent of the national production is concentrated in this region.[143]
Calabria has long coast and produce some distinctive fish products:
Manufacturing
Food and textile industries are the most developed and vibrant. Within the industrial sector, manufacturing contributes to a gross value added of 7.2%. In the manufacturing sector the main branches are foodstuff, beverage and tobacco with a contribution to the sector very close to the national average.[121] Over the recent decades some petrochemical, engineering and chemical industries have emerged, within the areas of Crotone, Vibo Valentia and Reggio Calabria.
The province of Catanzaro boasts a great tradition in the textile manufacturing, especially silk. Recently, several young people have given new life to this activity, developing green and sustainable economy projects. In fact, among the municipalities of
Tiriolo and Badolato are known above all for the manufacturing of the "vancale", the typical Calabrian shawl, made of wool or silk, worn by women in ancient times on traditional costumes during the dance of tarantella, or as an ornamental decoration of the houses. Typical in Tiriolo is also the manufacturing of carpets,
In Soveria Mannelli, Lanificio Leo,[146] the oldest textile factory in Calabria founded in 1873, is still active. The factory still retains majestic and evocative tools dating back to the late nineteenth century.
The traditional production of artistic ceramics dating back to the Magna Graecia period is handed down in the ancient towns of Squillace[147] and Seminara.[148]
The small town of Serrastretta, a green village in the woods of Presila, is known for its wood production, in particular for its chairs characterized by a very original straw.
There is a plant of
Tourism
Tourism in Calabria has increased over the years. The main tourist attractions are the coastline and the mountains. The coastline alternates between rugged cliffs and sandy beaches, and is sparsely interrupted by development when compared to other European seaside destinations. The sea around Calabria is clear, and there is a good level of tourist accommodation. The poet Gabriele D'Annunzio called the coast facing Sicily near Reggio Calabria "... the most beautiful kilometer in Italy" (il più bel chilometro d'Italia).[150][151] The primary mountain tourist draws are Aspromonte and La Sila, with its national park and lakes. Some other prominent destinations include:
- art nouveau buildings and the beaches, and its 3,000 years of history with its Aragonese Castle and the Museo Nazionale della Magna Grecia where the Riace bronzes(Bronzi di Riace) are located.
- This is the first award given by UNESCO to the region of Calabria.
- Scilla, on the Tyrrhenian Sea, "pearl" of the "Violet Coast", has a delightful panorama and is the site of some of Homer's tales.
- Tropea, on the Tyrrhenian Sea coast, is home to a dramatic seaside beach, and the Santa Maria dell'Isola sanctuary. It is also renowned for its sweet red onions (mainly produced in Ricadi).
- Capo Vaticano, on the Tyrrhenian Sea, is a wide bathing place near Tropea.
- Gerace, near Locri, is a medieval city with a Norman Castle and Norman Cathedral.
- Squillace, a seaside resort and important archaeological site. Nearby is the birthplace of Cassiodorus.
- Stilo, the birthplace of philosopher Tommaso Campanella, with its Norman Castle and Byzantine church, the Cattolica.
- Pizzo Calabro, on the Tyrrhenian Sea coast, known for its ice cream called "Tartufo". Interesting places in Pizzo are Piazza Repubblica and the Aragonese castle where Muratwas shot.
- Paola, a town situated on the Tyrrhenian Sea coast, renowned for being the birthplace of St. Francis of Paola, patron saint of Calabria and Italian sailors, and for the old Franciscan sanctuary built during the last hundred years of the Middle Ages by the will of St. Francis.
- Sibari, on the Ionian coast, a village situated near the archaeological site of the ancient city of Sybaris, a Greek colony of the 8th century BC.
- airport which links it to many destinations in Europe plus Canada and Israel and the train station. Several are the historical sights of the city, like the Norman-Swabian castle, the Jewish historical quarter and the Casa del Libro Antico (House of the Ancient Book)where books from the 16th to the 19th centuries, as well as old globes and ancient maps reproduction are well preserved and available to be seen by the public.
- Catanzaro, an important silk center since the time of the Byzantines, is located at the center of the narrowest point of Italy, from where the Ionian Sea and Tyrrhenian Sea are both visible, but not from Catanzaro. Of note are the well-known one-arch bridge (Viaduct Morandi-Bisantis, one of the tallest in Europe), the cathedral (rebuilt after World War II bombing), the castle, the promenade on the Ionian sea, the park of biodiversity and the archaeological park.
- Soverato on the Ionian Sea, also known as the "Pearl" of the Ionian Sea. Especially renowned for its beaches, boardwalk and nightlife.
- anniversary of the unification of Italy.
- Nicotera on the Tyrrhenian Sea, is a small medieval town with an ancient Ruffo's castle.
- Ancient temples of the Roman gods on the sun-kissed hills of Catanzaro still stand as others are swept beneath the earth. Many excavations are going on along the east coast, digging up what seems to be an ancient burial ground.
- Samo, a village on the foot of the Aspromonte, is well known for its spring water and ruins of the old village destroyed in the 1908 Messina earthquake.
- Mammola, art center, tourist and gastronomic, has an ancient history. The old town, with its small houses attached to each other, the ancient churches and noble palaces. Of particular interest is the Museum Park Santa Barbara, a place of art and cultural events of many international artists and the Shrine of St. Nicodemo of the 10th century, in the highlands of Limina. Its gastronomy with the "Stocco" typical of Mammola, cooked in various ways, other typical products are smoked ricotta and goat cheese, salami pepper and wild fennel, bread "pizza" (corn bread) and wheat bread baked in a wood oven.
- Praia a Mare on the Tyrrhenian Sea, is a well-known tourist city, thanks to the Isola di Dino and the seaside beach.
- Spilinga is known for its spicy pork pâté, 'Nduja.
Calabria attracts year-round tourism, offering both summer and winter activities, in addition to its cultural, historical, artistic heritage, it has an abundance of protected natural habitats and 'green' zones. The 485 mi (781 km) of its coast make Calabria a tourist destination during the summer. The low industrial development and the lack of major cities in much of its territory have allowed the maintenance of indigenous marine life.
The most sought-after seaside destinations are:
.In addition to the coastal tourist destinations, the interior of Calabria is rich in history, traditions, art and culture. Cosenza is among the most important cultural cities of Calabria, with a rich historical and artistic patrimony. Medieval castles, towers, churches, monasteries and other French castles and structures from the Norman to the Aragonese periods are common elements in both the interior and coastline of Calabria.
The mountains offer skiing and other winter activities:
).Calabria has many small and picturesque villages, 15 of them have been selected by I Borghi più belli d'Italia (English: The most beautiful Villages of Italy),[154] a non-profit private association of small Italian towns of strong historical and artistic interest,[155] that was founded on the initiative of the Tourism Council of the National Association of Italian Municipalities.[156]
Unemployment rate
The unemployment rate stood at 20.1% in 2020 and was the highest in Italy and one of the highest inside the European Union.[116]
Year | 2006 | 2007 | 2008 | 2009 | 2010 | 2011 | 2012 | 2013 | 2014 | 2015 | 2016 | 2017 | 2018 | 2019 | 2020 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
unemployment rate (in %) |
12.8% | 11.1% | 12.0% | 11.3% | 11.9% | 12.6% | 19.4% | 22.3% | 23.4% | 22.9% | 23.2% | 21.6% | 21.6% | 21.0% | 20.1% |
Infrastructure and transport
Shipping and ports
The main Calabrian ports are in Reggio Calabria and in Gioia Tauro. The port of Reggio is equipped with five loading docks of a length of 1,530 m (5,020 ft).
The
Motorways and rail
The region is served by three heavily used roads: two national highways along the coasts (the SS18 between Naples and Reggio Calabria and the SS106 between Reggio Calabria and Taranto) and the A2 motorway,[160] which links Salerno to Reggio Calabria, passing by Cosenza along the old inland route. Building this motorway took 55 years and was extremely over budget due to organized crime infiltration.[161]
There is high-speed rail on Calabria's Tyrrhenian Coast with the Frecciargento (Silver Arrow) offering a route from Rome to Reggio Calabria. There are also many ferries connecting Calabria with Sicily through the Strait of Sicily with the main one being from Villa San Giovanni to Messina.
Air travel
In Calabria there are two main airports: the
Demographics
Year | Pop. | ±% |
---|---|---|
1861 | 1,155,000 | — |
1871 | 1,219,000 | +5.5% |
1881 | 1,282,000 | +5.2% |
1901 | 1,439,000 | +12.2% |
1911 | 1,526,000 | +6.0% |
1921 | 1,627,000 | +6.6% |
1931 | 1,723,000 | +5.9% |
1936 | 1,772,000 | +2.8% |
1951 | 2,044,287 | +15.4% |
1961 | 2,045,047 | +0.0% |
1971 | 1,988,051 | −2.8% |
1981 | 2,061,182 | +3.7% |
1991 | 2,070,203 | +0.4% |
2001 | 2,011,466 | −2.8% |
2011 | 1,959,050 | −2.6% |
2021 | 1,855,454 | −5.3% |
Source: ISTAT |
The following is a list of Calabrian municipalities with a population of over 20,000:[162]
- Reggio Calabria – 186,013
- Catanzaro – 93,265
- Corigliano-Rossano – 77,220
- Lamezia Terme – 71,123
- Cosenza – 69,827
- Crotone – 61,529
- Rende – 35,352
- Vibo Valentia – 33,857
- Castrovillari – 22,518
- Acri – 21,263
- Montalto Uffugo – 20,553
Government and politics
Sister jurisdictions
- Burwood, Australia.[163]
- State of West Virginia, United States.[164]
Administrative divisions
Calabria is divided into five provinces:
Province | Population |
---|---|
Province of Cosenza | 734,260 |
Metropolitan City of Reggio Calabria | 565,813 |
Province of Catanzaro | 368,318 |
Province of Crotone | 174,076 |
Province of Vibo Valentia | 166,760 |
Healthcare system
Because of their debts, since 2009 they were administered by an extraordinary commissioner appointed by the central Italian government. In 2012, the Calabria Region unified 11 Azienda Sanitaria Locale into 5
Language
Although the official national language of Calabria has been Standard Italian since before unification in 1861, Calabria has dialects that have been spoken in the region for centuries. The Calabrian language is a direct derivative of Latin. Most linguists divide the various
Religion
The majority of Calabrians are
Even though it is currently a very small community, there has been a long history of the presence of Jews in Calabria. The Jews have had a presence in the region for at least 1600 years and possibly as much as 2300 years. Calabrian Jews have had notably influence on many areas of Jewish life and culture. Although virtually identical to the Jews of Sicily, the Jews of Calabria are considered a distinct Jewish population due to historical and geographic considerations. There is a small community of Italian Anusim who have resumed the Jewish faith.[175]
It is important to highlight the presence of Calabrians in
Cuisine
The cuisine is a typical southern Italian
Some local specialties include
.In ancient times Calabria was referred to as Enotria (from
Transportation
Airports
Seaports
- Port of Gioia Tauro (the busiest container port in Italy and 9th-busiest in Europe)[178]
- Port of Reggio Calabria
- Port of Vibo Valentia
- Port of Villa San Giovanni
- Port of Corigliano Calabro
- Port of Crotone
Bridges
Calabria has the two highest bridges in Italy:
- Italia Viaduct
- Sfalassa Viaduct (also the highest and longest span frame bridge in the world)[179]
Universities
There are 3 public universities in the region of Calabria
- University of Calabria (Cosenza)
- Magna Graecia University(Catanzaro)
- Mediterranea University of Reggio Calabria
There is also the private University for Foreigners "Dante Alighieri" in Reggio Calabria.
Notable people
See also
- 'Ndrangheta
- 1783 Calabrian earthquakes
- 1905 Calabria earthquake
- 1908 Messina earthquake
- Arbëreshë people
- Duke of Calabria
- Bruttians
- Griko people
- Magna Graecia
- Oenotrians
- Strait of Messina Bridge
- Theme of Sicily
Notes
- : Kalavría.
References
- ^ "Population on 1 January by age, sex and NUTS 2 region", www.ec.europa.eu, archived from the original on 25 December 2023, retrieved 29 December 2023
- ^ "Sub-national HDI – Area Database – Global Data Lab". hdi.globaldatalab.org. Archived from the original on 23 September 2018. Retrieved 5 March 2023.
- ^ "Calabria". Oxford Dictionaries UK English Dictionary. Oxford University Press. n.d. Retrieved 6 May 2019.
- ^ a b "Calabria". Collins English Dictionary. HarperCollins. Archived from the original on 1 May 2019. Retrieved 6 May 2019.
- ^ "Calabria". Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary. Retrieved 6 May 2019.
- ^ Guillotining, M., History of Earliest Italy, trans. Ryle, M & Soper, K. in Jerome Lectures, Diciassettesima serie, p.50
- ISBN 9781139992701.
- ISBN 9789004234123.
- ^ Dionysius of Halicarnassus (1937). "1.35". Roman Antiquities. Harvard University Press. Archived from the original on 15 December 2022. Retrieved 19 February 2021.
- ISBN 978-0-674-99201-6. Archivedfrom the original on 5 March 2022. Retrieved 20 February 2021.
- ISBN 9781317696827.
- ^ Antonio Luce (25 January 2011). "italian travel team Calabria – Italy Travel Guide". Archived from the original on 11 December 2021 – via YouTube.
- ^ "Dante Alighieri Society of Massachusetts: A Concise History of Italy". Dante Alighieri Society of Massachusetts, Inc. Archived from the original on 11 June 2016. Retrieved 23 April 2016.
- ^ "Cirò: Calabria's Ancient Wine from the Toe of Southern Italy's Boot – Into Wine". 9 October 2008. Archived from the original on 14 May 2016. Retrieved 27 April 2016.
- ^ "Guida Consiglio" (PDF). consiglioregionale.calabria.it. p. 7. Archived (PDF) from the original on 30 August 2021. Retrieved 31 August 2021.
- JSTOR 264353.
- ^ NASA – Clouds and Sunlight Archived 5 April 2012 at the Wayback Machine. Nasa.gov (30 December 2009). Retrieved on 28 July 2013.
- ^ "Journeys". Archived from the original on 2 July 2019. Retrieved 2 July 2019.
- ^ "The Calabria National Park, sila Grande and Sila Piccola". www.madeinsouthitalytoday.com. Archived from the original on 4 September 2016. Retrieved 6 March 2016.
- ^ "attivita_montagna – Costa Tiziana". Archived from the original on 20 December 2016. Retrieved 28 November 2018.
- ^ "The giants of the sila". Archived from the original on 13 October 2016. Retrieved 12 August 2016.
- ^ "The Giants of the Sila: memories and history of a biogenetic reserve – I Giganti della Sila". Archived from the original on 21 December 2016. Retrieved 21 December 2018.
- ^ "The Forest of Giants". www.ItalyTraveller.com. Archived from the original on 2 July 2019. Retrieved 2 July 2019.
- ^ Rai. "Water, woodland, silence: the Sila Park". Archived from the original on 9 August 2017 – via YouTube.
- ^ "Calabria climate: when to go to Calabria – Italy: travel, recipes, family and health". 17 March 2016. Archived from the original on 26 April 2016. Retrieved 13 April 2016.
- ^ "Reggio Calabria (RC) 21 m. s.l.m. (a.s.l.)" (PDF). Servizio Meteorologico. Archived (PDF) from the original on 24 September 2018. Retrieved 7 September 2013.
- National Oceanic and Atmosoheric Administration. Archivedfrom the original on 29 February 2024. Retrieved 29 February 2024.
- NOAA. Archivedfrom the original on 17 March 2024. Retrieved 29 February 2024.
- ^ "Climate Normals for Monte Scurto (Italian IP required)" (PDF). Servizio Meteorologico. Archived (PDF) from the original on 24 September 2018. Retrieved 24 September 2018.
- ^ a b c d e van Dijk, J.P., Bello, M., Brancaleoni, G.P., Cantarella, G., Costa, V., Frixa, A., Golfetto, F., Merlini, S., Riva, M., Toricelli, S., Toscano, C., and Zerilli, A. (2000, a); A new structural model for the northern sector of the Calabrian Arc. Tectonophysics, 324, 267–320.
- ^ Argand, E. (1922); La tectonique de l'Asie. Comptes Rendus 3rd Int. Geol. Congr., Liège (Be), 1922, 1, 171–372.
- ^ Boccaletti, M., and Guazzone, G. (1972, b); Evoluzione paleogeografica e geodinamica del Mediterraneo: i bacini marginali. Mem. Soc. geol. It., 13, 162–169.
- ^ Ogniben, Leo (1973); Schema geologico della Calabria in base ai dati odierni. Geol. Romana, 12, 243–585.
- ^ Ippolito, Felice (1959); Bibliografia geologica d'Italia, Vol. 4, Calabria. C.N.R., Roma
- ^ Cortese, E. (1895); Descrizione geologica della Calabria. Mem. Descrit. Carta Geol. It., 9, 310 pp., Roma.
- S2CID 128811666.
- ^ "History of Calabria" (PDF). Calabria: Italy's Best Kept Secret. 2007. Archived (PDF) from the original on 30 August 2021. Retrieved 31 August 2021.
- ^ "Storia della Calabria – Calabrian History". www.g-site.com. Archived from the original on 27 July 2020. Retrieved 2 July 2019.
- from the original on 19 November 2023. Retrieved 19 November 2023.
- ISBN 978-88-425-4017-5.
- ISBN 9788880968825.
- ^ Mollo, Fabrizio (2001). Archeologia per Tortora: frammenti dal passato. Potenza: Societa Tipografica Ed.
- ^ "Olympic Games – Winter Summer Past and Future Olympics". 20 December 2018. Archived from the original on 27 April 2016. Retrieved 27 April 2016.
- ^ "Intellectual Property (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)". plato.stanford.edu. Archived from the original on 11 December 2015. Retrieved 24 October 2015.
- ^ Matthews, Jeff. "Who were the Sybarites?". Archived from the original on 6 March 2016. Retrieved 6 March 2016.
- ^ "Locri". www.amalficoast.com. Archived from the original on 2 July 2019. Retrieved 2 July 2019.
- ISBN 978-1-108-02184-5. Archivedfrom the original on 27 February 2023. Retrieved 12 August 2016.
- ^ Grant 1993, p. 77
- ^ Matyszak 2004, p. 14
- ^ Grant 1993, p. 78
- ^ Musti 1990, p. 536
- ^ Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Roman Histories, 20.5–6
- ^ Lane Fox 2005, p. 307
- ^ Livy, The History of Rome, 30.19
- ^ Livy, The History of Rome, 34.45, 53; 35.40
- ISBN 9781139992701.
- ISBN 978-0-89236-767-2. Archivedfrom the original on 27 February 2023. Retrieved 12 August 2016.
- ^ Erik Durschmied, From Armageddon to the Fall of Rome, Ch. 17
- ^ Peter Brown, The World of Late Antiquity: AD 150–750.
- ^ TheGreatMysteries (3 April 2011). "Testament The Bible And History episode 6 Power And Glory part one (1 of 2)". Archived from the original on 11 December 2021 – via YouTube.
- ^ "Cassiodorus, Chapter 6: Vivarium". faculty.georgetown.edu. Archived from the original on 8 December 2015. Retrieved 6 March 2016.
- ^ Cassiodorus, Variae, 9.24–54, 38–39
- ^ metatags generator. "Bleeding Espresso". bleedingespresso.com. Archived from the original on 28 September 2015. Retrieved 24 October 2015.
- ^ The Italian Cities and the Arabs before 1095, Hilmar C. Krueger, A History of the Crusades: The First Hundred Years, Vol. I, ed. Kenneth Meyer Setton, Marshall W. Baldwin, (University of Pennsylvania Press, 1955), 50–51.
- ^ a b c generator, metatags. "History of Calabria – Bleeding Espresso". Archived from the original on 28 September 2015. Retrieved 1 March 2015.
- ^ Guillou, André; Delogu, Paolo (1983). "Il mezzoggiorno dai Bizantini a Federico II". Storia d'Italia (in Italian). Vol. III. UTET.
- ^ Sakellariou, Eleni (2011). Southern Italy in the Late Middle Ages: Demographic, Institutional Change in the Kingdom of Naples, c.1440-c.1530. Brill.
- ^ "Catanzaro Italy: Catanzaro guide, city of Catanzaro, Calabria Italy". Initalytoday.com. Archived from the original on 23 September 2013. Retrieved 26 March 2013.
- ^ "Catanzaro: What to see and what to do". Archived from the original on 29 October 2020. Retrieved 26 October 2020.
- ^ Muthesius, Anna, "Silk in the Medieval World". In Jenkins (2003), p. 331.
- ^ Sakellariou, Eleni (2011). Southern Italy in the Late Middle Ages: Demographic, Institutional Change in the Kingdom of Naples, c.1440-c.1530. Brill.
- ^ "The Ancient and Noble Art of Silk". 14 May 2015. Archived from the original on 23 October 2020. Retrieved 20 October 2020.
- ^ "Catanzaro | Italy". Archived from the original on 21 October 2020. Retrieved 20 October 2020.
- ISBN 978-900-422-4063.
- ^ "The Gregorian Calendar". www.timeanddate.com. Archived from the original on 26 June 2019. Retrieved 2 July 2019.
- ^ "Gregorian Calendar Adopted". Archived from the original on 5 June 2016. Retrieved 6 March 2016.
- ^ Matthews, Jeff. "Luigi Lillo, the Gregorian Calendat & the Carafa Castle". Archived from the original on 1 April 2016. Retrieved 6 March 2016.
- ^ Rossi, Cesare; Russo, Flavio (2016). Ancient Engineers' Inventions: Precursors of the Present.
- ISBN 8875741271. Archivedfrom the original on 27 February 2023. Retrieved 6 November 2020.
- ^ "Chapter 1: A Brief History of Figured Textile Production" (PDF). pp. 11–20. Archived (PDF) from the original on 14 May 2021. Retrieved 6 November 2020.
- ISBN 978-900-422-4063.
- ^ Galasso, Giuseppe (1975). Economia e società nella Calabria del Cinquecento (in Italian). L'Altra Europa.
- ^ Boenke, Michaela. "Bernardino Telesio". stanford.library.sydney.edu.au. Archived from the original on 27 July 2020. Retrieved 15 June 2019.
- ^ "Notes for Bacon Session (7/27 and 7/28)" (PDF). colorado.edu. Archived from the original (PDF) on 6 March 2016. Retrieved 6 March 2016.
- ^ Garber, Daniel. "Telesio among the Novatores: Telesio's Reception in the Seventeenth Century" (PDF). colorado.edu. Archived from the original (PDF) on 6 March 2016. Retrieved 6 March 2016.
- ^ "Homepage". Archived from the original on 20 December 2016. Retrieved 28 November 2018.
- ISBN 978-1-84331-770-8.
- ^ Rose, Eugenio; Conforti, Emilia (2019). "Biblioteca del Collegio Ialo-albanese".
- ^ The National Cyclopaedia of Useful Knowledge, Vol.IV, (1848) London, Charles Knight, p.17
- ^ "Golden Day 107: Cosenza with LuLu Bianco of Calabrisella Mia". 28 April 2014. Archived from the original on 20 December 2016. Retrieved 12 August 2016.
- ^ ISBN 978-0307387721.
- ISBN 0300051328.
- ^ ISBN 0300051328.
- ^ ISBN 0300051328.
- ISBN 0300051328.
- ISBN 978-3319325859.
- ^ ISBN 978-3319325859.
- ^ ISBN 0300051328.
- ^ ISBN 0300051328.
- ISBN 0300051328.
- ^ ISBN 1899293566.
- ISBN 1899293566.
- ISBN 978-1138333086.
- ISBN 978-1138333086.
- ISBN 978-0-521-61826-7.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-521-61826-7.
- ISBN 0-674-00163-X.
- ^ ISBN 1899293566.
- ^ ISBN 1899293566.
- ISBN 1899293566.
- ISBN 1899293566.
- ISBN 1899293566.
- ^ ISBN 978-3319325859.
- ISBN 978-3319325859.
- ISBN 978-3319325859.
- ^ a b "Unemployment NUTS 2 regions Eurostat". Archived from the original on 12 November 2020. Retrieved 13 May 2021.
- ^ Donadio, Rachel (7 October 2012). "In Italy, Calabria is drained by corruption". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 4 March 2022. Retrieved 28 May 2017.
- ^ "Biologico, l'Italia resta prima in Europa – AgroNotizie – Economia e politica". agronotizie.imagelinenetwork.com. Archived from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 24 October 2015.
- ^ "Il Territorio" (in Italian). Consorzio Cipolla Rossa di Tropea Calabria IGP. Archived from the original on 3 July 2019. Retrieved 25 March 2020.
- ^ "Consorzio Cipolla di Tropea IGP". Archived from the original on 12 June 2011. Retrieved 1 December 2020.
- ^ a b "Portraits of the Regions". DG REGIO of the European Commission. March 2004. Archived from the original on 21 July 2011. Retrieved 8 September 2010.
- ^ [1][permanent dead link]
- ^ Italian olives Archived 2 November 2015 at the Wayback Machine Retrieved 3 July 2018
- ^ "PDO Oil: Calabrian extra virgin olive oil" (in Italian). 26 February 2018. Archived from the original on 14 May 2021. Retrieved 1 December 2020.
- ^ "Calabria at the top of citrus fruit production" (in Italian). 19 January 2016. Archived from the original on 29 December 2020. Retrieved 1 December 2020.
- ^ "Fascinating Calabria: The Oranges perfume – SMAF Ltd". Archived from the original on 15 October 2021. Retrieved 1 December 2020.
- ^ "Bergamot and Cedro – The Citrus Fruits of Calabria". ourlivesinitaly.com. 8 August 2020. Archived from the original on 20 September 2021. Retrieved 31 August 2021.
- ^ "ISTAT. Istituto Nazionale di Statistica. Statistical Database. 2018". Archived from the original on 16 May 2019. Retrieved 1 December 2020.
- PMID 22458691.
- ^ Italy: Responsibly sourcing bergamot from Calabria. Archived from the original on 27 October 2020. Retrieved 3 December 2020.
- ^ "Net bergamot oil export in 2009". Archived from the original on 14 May 2021. Retrieved 14 May 2021.
- ^ "Net bergamot oil export in 2018". Archived from the original on 14 May 2021. Retrieved 14 May 2021.
- ^ Bolani, Domenico Spano (1857). Storia di Reggio di Calabria da'tempi primitivi sino all'anno di Cristo 1797. Stamp. del Fibreno. p. 297.
- ^ "For Crown Heights Jews, An Italian Twist on an Ancient Tradition". DNAinfo New York. Archived from the original on 18 November 2017. Retrieved 11 August 2021.
- ^ "Export of essential oils in 2018". Archived from the original on 14 May 2021. Retrieved 14 May 2021.
- ^ "Fichi di Cosenza DOP" (in Italian). Archived from the original on 7 May 2021. Retrieved 1 December 2020.
- ^ "Two young silkworm breeders revive an ancient silk tradition in rugged Calabria". Archived from the original on 13 May 2021. Retrieved 2 February 2021.
- ^ Singleton, Kate (2 March 2001). "ITALIAN FASHION: Many Yarns Spin a Revival in Calabria". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 7 February 2021. Retrieved 2 February 2021.
- ^ "Calabria". Global Epicurean. Archived from the original on 20 September 2015. Retrieved 5 March 2016.
- ^ "Calabria itineraries from the Tyrrhenian to the Ionian". www.madeinsouthitalytoday.com. Archived from the original on 7 March 2016. Retrieved 5 March 2016.
- ^ "Italy – Agriculture, forestry and fishing". Archived from the original on 4 December 2020. Retrieved 3 December 2020.
- ^ "Italy: Peaches and nectrarines from Calabria to Northern Europe". Archived from the original on 18 April 2021. Retrieved 3 December 2020.
- ^ "Liquorice: black gold in Calabria". Archived from the original on 26 January 2021. Retrieved 1 December 2020.
- ^ "Two young silkworm breeders revive an ancient silk tradition in rugged Calabria". Archived from the original on 13 May 2021. Retrieved 20 February 2021.
- ^ "A very young artisan rediscovers the ancient art of silk" (in Italian). 9 February 2021. Archived from the original on 13 February 2021. Retrieved 20 February 2021.
- ^ "Lanificio Leo". Archived from the original on 27 July 2004. Retrieved 20 February 2021.
- ^ "Discovering Authentic Calabria: Squillace is a Ceramics Destination on the Toe of Italy's Boot". Archived from the original on 12 May 2021. Retrieved 20 February 2021.
- ^ "The Ceramics of Seminara". Archived from the original on 29 April 2021. Retrieved 23 February 2021.
- ^ "hitachi completed production vivalto cars". Archived from the original on 14 May 2021. Retrieved 14 May 2021.
- ^ "Guide to Reggio Calabria". Delicious Italy. 8 May 2012. Archived from the original on 12 October 2013. Retrieved 26 March 2013.
- ^ "Regions – Calabria". Insiders Abroad. Archived from the original on 19 March 2013. Retrieved 26 March 2013.
- ^ "Youritaly.com | Cosenza City | Calabria". Archived from the original on 22 February 2014. Retrieved 24 October 2015.
- ^ "Cosenza – Calabria: Your holiday in Italy". en.italy-holiday.com. Archived from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 24 October 2015.
- ^ "Calabria" (in Italian). Archived from the original on 16 October 2023. Retrieved 1 August 2023.
- ^ "Borghi più belli d'Italia. Le 14 novità 2023, dal Trentino alla Calabria" (in Italian). Archived from the original on 28 November 2023. Retrieved 28 July 2023.
- ^ "I Borghi più belli d'Italia, la guida online ai piccoli centri dell'Italia nascosta" (in Italian). Archived from the original on 25 February 2016. Retrieved 3 May 2018.
- ^ "The largest European ports". Archived from the original on 21 January 2023. Retrieved 14 May 2021.
- ^ "Top_20_ports_handling_containers". Archived from the original on 5 May 2021. Retrieved 14 May 2021.
- ^ Bitter harvest Archived 11 September 2019 at the Wayback Machine, The Guardian, 19 December 2006
- ^ (in Italian) ...una vera e propria «vergogna italiana», in La storia della Salerno Reggio Calabria Archived 22 July 2011 at the Wayback Machine, book about Salerno-Reggio Calabria
- ^ Organised crime may be behind problems with southern motorway: Awkward questions remain about Italian infrastructure, in [2] Archived 4 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ "Statistiche demografiche ISTAT". demo.istat.it. Archived from the original on 26 July 2017. Retrieved 24 October 2015.
- Burwood Council. 17 August 2012. Archived from the originalon 27 March 2014. Retrieved 9 March 2015.
- ^ "Patto d'amicizia tra la Calabria ed il West Virginia" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 April 2015. Retrieved 16 October 2012.
- ^ "Organization of the healthcare system in Calabria" (PDF). Calabria Region (in Italian). Archived (PDF) from the original on 12 January 2012.
- ^ Candito, alessia (23 July 2021). "Calabria, la Consulta: "Il commissariamento della sanità è parzialmente incostituzionale. Non basta cambiare il vertice"". La Repubblica (in Italian). Archived from the original on 9 August 2021. Retrieved 9 August 2021.
- ^ "Commissariamento sanità incostituzionale, Sainato: «Affidarsi a professionisti capaci" (in Italian). 25 July 2021. Archived from the original on 9 August 2021. Retrieved 9 August 2021.
- ^ "report for language code:sic". Archived from the original on 16 September 2020. Retrieved 15 September 2020.
- ^ Kolasa-Sikiaridi, Kerry (10 December 2019). "Calabrian Greek, a Language on the Brink of Extinction". Greek Reporter. Archived from the original on 30 September 2020. Retrieved 31 August 2021.
- ^ "Secret Jews Evangelical Christians". Archived from the original on 27 January 2021. Retrieved 8 February 2021.
- ^ "Orthodox Europe :: Italy". orthodoxengland.org.uk. Archived from the original on 28 November 2007. Retrieved 28 February 2016.
- ^ "Orthodox Christianity in Southern Italy. Part 1". OrthoChristian.Com. Archived from the original on 2 July 2019. Retrieved 8 February 2021.
- ^ "A JOURNAL OF ORTHODOX FAITH AND CULTURE – Road to Emmaus" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 20 December 2016. Retrieved 28 February 2016.
- ^ "CALABRIA: ITALY'S HOLY MOUNTAINS". 28 June 2012. Archived from the original on 2 February 2017. Retrieved 15 June 2019.
- ^ "Center for the Study of Jewry in Calabria and Sicily". Archived from the original on 12 June 2010. Retrieved 11 September 2010.
- ^ "Pausanias, Description of Greece, Arcadia, 8.3.5, at Theoi Project". theoi.com. Archived from the original on 13 January 2018. Retrieved 24 October 2015.
- ^ The-Wine-Library Archived 5 June 2009 at the Wayback Machine Short Description of wine in Calabria
- ^ "Top 10: The busiest container ports in Europe". 6 August 2021. Archived from the original on 7 October 2022. Retrieved 16 May 2022.
- ^ "Sfalassa Bridge". HighestBridges.com. 28 March 2010. Archived from the original on 22 March 2017. Retrieved 26 March 2013.
Works cited
- Grant, Michael (1993). The History of Rome. Faber and Faber. ISBN 0-571-11461-X.
- Lane Fox, Robin (2005). The Classical World. Penguin Books. ISBN 0-14-102141-1.
- Matyszak, Philip (2004). The Enemies of Rome. New York: Thames and Hudson. ISBN 0-500-25124-X.
- Musti, Domenico (1990). "La spinta verso il Sud: espansione romana e rapporti "internazionali"". Storia di Roma. Vol. I. Turin: Einaudi. ISBN 978-88-06-11741-2.
Further reading
- Dal Lago, Enrico, and Rick Halpern, eds. The American South and the Italian Mezzogiorno: Essays in Comparative History (2002) ISBN 0-333-73971-X
- Dunston, Lara, and Terry Carter. Travellers Calabria (Travellers – Thomas Cook) (2009), guidebook
- Moe, Nelson. The View from Vesuvius: Italian Culture and the Southern Question (2002)
- Schneider, Jane. Italy's 'Southern Question': Orientalism in One Country (1998)
External links
Calabria.