Buddhism and Hinduism
Hinduism and other religions |
---|
Indian religions |
Abrahamic religions |
|
Hinduism and... |
Part of a series on |
Hinduism |
---|
Part of a series on |
Buddhism |
---|
Buddhism and Hinduism have common origins in the culture of
Both religions have many shared beliefs and practices, but also pronounced differences that have led to much debate.[5] Both share belief in karma and rebirth (or reincarnation), they both accept the idea of spiritual liberation (moksha or nirvana) from the cycle of reincarnation and they both promote similar religious practices (such as dhyana, samadhi, mantra, and devotion). Both religions also share many deities (though their nature is understood differently), including Saraswati, Vishnu (Upulvan), Mahakala, Indra, Ganesha, and Brahma.
However, Buddhism notably rejects fundamental Hindu doctrines such as atman (substantial self or soul), Brahman (a universal eternal source of everything) and the existence of a creator God (Ishvara). Instead, Buddhism teaches not-self (anatman) and dependent arising as fundamental metaphysical theories.
Origins
Buddhism
Historically, the roots of Buddhism lie in the religious thought of
New ideas developed both in the Vedic tradition in the form of the Upanishads, and outside of the Vedic tradition through the Śramaṇa movements.[11][12][13] The term Śramaṇa refers to several Indian religious movements parallel to but separate from the historical Vedic religion, including Buddhism, Jainism and others such as Ājīvika.[14]
Several Śramaṇa movements are known to have existed in India before the 6th century BCE (pre-
The Śramaṇa religions challenged and broke with the Brahmanic tradition on core assumptions such as
Hinduism
Scholars regard Hinduism as a fusion[2][note 1] or synthesis[3][note 2] of various Indian cultures and traditions.[3][note 3] Among its roots are the historical Vedic religion,[27][28] itself already the product of "a composite of the Indo-Aryan and Harappan cultures and civilizations",[29][note 5] which evolved into the Brahmanical religion and ideology of the Kuru Kingdom of Iron Age northern India; but also the Śramaṇa[30] or renouncer traditions[27] of northeast India,[30] and mesolithic[31] and neolithic[32] cultures of India, such as the religions of the Indus Valley Civilisation,[33] Dravidian traditions,[34] and the local traditions[27] and tribal religions.[35]
This
Buddhism and Hinduism share numerous terms and ideas. Examples include: dharma, karma, samadhi, samsara, dhyana, jñana, klesha, nirodha, samskāra, brahmin, brahmacarya, nirvana.[43]
Indian Buddhists and Hindus also used the Sanskrit language as a religious and scholarly language. Sanskrit terminology remains important for both Buddhists and Hindus.
The Buddha used numerous religious terms which are also used in Hinduism, though he often used them in different and novel ways. Many terms which Buddhism shares with Hinduism carry a different meaning in the Buddhist tradition. For example, in the
Karma, rebirth, and samsara
Karma is a central part of Hindu and Buddhist teachings. Karma is a word meaning action or activity and often implies its subsequent results (also called karma-phala, "the fruits of action"). Karma theory is commonly applied to the ethical realm of cause and effect in both Buddhism and Hinduism. In Buddhism and in Hinduism, a person's words, thoughts and actions form the basis for good and bad karma. Good deeds (good karmas) lead to good karmic results (Sanskrit: karma-phala, the fruits of karma) which can include the circumstances of one's future reincarnation. Likewise, evil actions might result in negative karmic consequences.[46][47]
Thus, the Indian idea of karma is also closely associated with the idea of
Dharma
In Hinduism, Dharma can refer generally to religious duty or universal order (similar to rta), and also mean social order, right conduct, or simply virtue. In Buddhism, Dharma can mean the true nature of things or the natural law that the Buddha discovered. It can also refer to the teachings of the Buddha, which explain and reveal this nature.
Asceticism and monasticism
Both Buddhism and some forms of Hinduism emphasize the importance of monasticism. In Buddhism, the monastic sangha plays a central role in teaching and passing down the Buddha's Dharma. Monasticism is also seen as an ideal way of life for cultivating the qualities that lead to awakening. In certain sects of Hinduism, the life of the renouncer (sannyasa) is also very important.
Cosmology and deities
Buddhist cosmology and Hindu cosmology share many similarities. Both cosmologies are cyclical and both accept that the universe goes through constant cycles of growth and destruction. Both traditions also accept that there are many different realms or worlds (lokas) other than the human realm.[51][52] These include various hell realms and celestial deva realms.
Buddhism and Hinduism share some of the same deities, including:
- Saraswati (known as Benzaiten in Japan),
- Vishnu (known as Upulvan in Sri Lanka),
- Mahākāla (a form of Shiva in Hinduism) is seen as a form of Avalokiteśvara in Mahayana Buddhism
- Indra, Vedic-era Hindu storm god of the Heavens, who is also widely depicted in Buddhist scriptures
- Ganesh (more widely known as Ganapati in Buddhism)
- Brahma - a key deity in the old Upanishads who is also seen as a protective figure in Buddhism and also as a class of deities, see: Brahma in Buddhism.[53][54][55]
- Lakshmi (in Japanese Buddhism she is known as Kishijoten)
- Tara is an important Buddhist deity in Tibetan Buddhism. In Hinduism, Tara Devi is one of the ten Mahavidyas.
The Buddhist text Mahamayuri Tantra, written during 1–3rd centuries CE, mentions various deities (such as Maheshvara) throughout South Asia, and invokes them for the protection of the Buddhadharma. It also mentions a large number of Vedic rishis.[56]
Liberation
Both Buddhism and Hinduism teach a similar goal of liberation or spiritual enlightenment from the cycle of rebirths (samsara). Both religions accept that the escape from the cycle of rebirths or samsara is the highest goal of the spiritual life. In both religions, this liberation is considered the complete end of rebirth or reincarnation. In Hinduism, this liberation may be called moksha, nirvana, or kaivalya; and in Buddhism it may be called vimoksha (Pali: vimokha), nirvana (Pali: nibbana) or bodhi (awakening).[57][58] Both Hinduism and Buddhism use the term Nirvana (or Nibbana in Pali language) for spiritual liberation, which literally means 'blowing out' or 'quenching'. The term is pre-Buddhist, but its etymology is not essentially conclusive for finding out its exact meaning as the highest goal of early Buddhism.[59][60]
Both religions also venerate the liberated beings who have attain the goal of spiritual liberation. Buddhism calls liberated beings either arhats or Buddhas (awakened ones). In Hinduism, liberated beings are commonly called jivanmuktas, though the term nirvana is also used. The term "Buddha" is also used in some Hindu scriptures. In the Vayu Purana for example, the sage Daksha calls Shiva a Buddha.[61]
Similar practices
Ethics
Both Hinduism and Buddhism promote similar ethical systems. The virtue of non-harming (ahimsa) is a key virtue in both Hindu ethics and Buddhist ethics. Other important shared ethical principles include non-attachment (vairagya) or renunciation (nekkhamma) and truthfulness (satya).
Yogic practice, Dhyana and Samadhi
The practice of
Yoga scholar Stephen Cope argues that Buddhism and Hindu traditions like Patanjali's Yoga (a system which is very influential on modern Hinduism) are strikingly similar in numerous key ways, having shared a long period of interchange up to about 500 CE.[43]
The following chart compares these two basic religious systems:[43]
Aspects[43] | Patanjalian Yoga[43] | Buddhism[43] |
---|---|---|
Primary problems | Dukkha (suffering)
Ignorance (not seeing reality clearly)
| |
Liberation method 1: Cultivate skilful behaviours |
Yamas (restraints), Niyamas (observances) |
Sila (ethical training)
|
Liberation method 2: Cultivate concentrated states |
Dharana (concentration), (meditation)Dhyana |
the Four Dhyanas (meditations)
|
Liberation method 3: Use states to explore reality |
prajñā), self study (svadhyaya ) |
Study, contemplation, investigation of reality ( vipassana .
|
View of ordinary reality | 4 Erroneous Beliefs — permanence of material objects, — ultimate reality of body, — that suffering is happiness, — that body/mind is true self |
3 Marks of Existence:
— conditioned things are impermanent — all conditioned things are dukkha — all phenomena are not self |
The end of suffering | Kaivalya (emancipation) | Nirvana |
Differing view of ultimate reality | The atman (Self) i.e. purusha or pure awareness | Dependent Arising and not-self (anatman) |
The
Devotion
Both traditions also make use of devotional practice (
In Hinduism, bhakti yoga is focused on God (Ishvara), whether understood as Vishnu, Shiva or Devi. This yoga includes listening to scripture, prayer, chanting, worship services (puja) and other practices.[66]
Mantra
A
Rituals
Similar symbolism
- Mudras are symbolic hand-gestures in Indian art, Buddhist and Hindu deities are often depicted with specific mudras
- Dharma Wheel: The Dharma Wheel (dharmacakra), which appears on the national flag of India and the flag of the Thai royal family, is a traditional symbol that is used by members of both religions.
- tilak, which is interpreted as a third eye. A similar mark, the urna, is one of the characteristic physical characteristics of the Buddha.
- Swastikas are used in both traditions. It can be either clockwise or counter-clockwise and both are seen in Hinduism and Buddhism. The Buddha is sometimes depicted with a sauwastika on his chest or the palms of his hands.[69]
- The Lotus flower signifies divinity and purity in both traditions
- Mandalas
Differences
There are several key doctrinal and practical differences between the two religions.[70]
Founders
Hinduism has no single historical founder. Modern Hinduism grew out of the overlapping beliefs of diverse Indian religious groups over centuries of history. Buddhism however does have a single historical founder,
Scriptures
Both traditions have their own canon of scripture and do not accept each other's scriptures as authoritative. Buddhism rejects the Vedas and other Hindu scripture as being authoritative. Instead, Buddhists generally accept the word of the Buddha (Buddhavacana) as being authoritative regarding religious matters.[72] Buddhists also reject the idea that the Vedas are eternal divine scriptures (either as uncreated or as created by a God), which are common Hindu beliefs defended in the Vedanta and Mimamsa philosophies.[72] As such, the Buddhist tradition ignores the very foundation of Hindu brahmanical religion (sruti: authoritative scriptures).[73]
Buddhist perspective
The Buddha is recorded as having criticized the Vedic
Suppose there were a file of blind men each in touch with the next: the first one does not see, the middle one does not see, and the last one does not see. So too, Bhāradvāja, in regard to their statement the brahmins seem to be like a file of blind men: the first one does not see, the middle one does not see, and the last one does not see. What do you think, Bhāradvāja, that being so, does not the faith of the brahmins turn out to be groundless?[74]
The Indian Buddhist philosopher Dharmakīrti pithily expressed his disagreement with the religion of the Vedas as follows:
Accepting the authority of the Vedas, believing in individual agency, hoping for merit from bathing, taking pride in caste, undertaking rites for the removal of evils: these are the five signs of stupidity, the destruction of intelligence.[75]
Later Buddhist authors like Bhavaviveka and Saṅghabhadra argued that the Vedas were authored by ancient people who were spiritually and philosophically unqualified as well as being morally deficient.[76] In his critique, Bhavaviveka actually draws on some passages found in the Hindu Samkhyakarika and in the work of Gaudapada, which holds that Vedic sacrifice is impure and of “mixed nature” (Sanskrit: miśrībhāva). Bhavaviveka points to the presence of killing (found in various sacrifices), sexual promiscuity (in a Vedic ritual called Gosava) and use of alcohol (in a rite called Sautrāmaṇī) in the Vedas to argue that they were authored by evil people and compares them to the foreign scriptures of the "Magas" (i.e. the Persian Magi).[77] Furthermore, in the ninth chapter of his Madhyamakahrdayakārikā (Verses on the Heart of the Middle Way), Bhavaviveka critiques the idea that bad karma can be removed through Vedic ritual, through devotion (bhakti) to the gods or by meditating on the gods and their mantras.[78]
Hindu perspective
Meanwhile, most Hindus see the Vedas as divinely revealed scriptures. Hindu traditions either believe that the Vedas are authorless and eternal, or they hold that the Vedas were created by
Due to the Buddhist rejection of the Vedas (and the Vedic
Likewise, as noted by Klaus K. Klostermaier, the Viṣṇu Purāṇa, an ancient and authoritative Purana, "presents the Buddha as a heretic and a seducer of people, one of many forms of the māyā-moha (delusive power) of Viṣṇu and recommends complete shunning of Buddhists in order to prevent pollution and punishment."[83]
Epistemology
Since the time of
Hindu philosophical traditions like Nyaya and Vedanta meanwhile generally accept Vedic scriptures as a major source of knowledge.[89][90] Indeed, in Vedanta, the Vedic sources are the main source of knowledge. Vedāntins thinkers all agree that Vedic scripture (śruti) is the only means of knowledge (pramāṇa) when it comes to spiritual topics.[91] For example, the Vedāntin Rāmānuja states that "with regard to supernatural matters, Scripture alone is the epistemic authority and that reasoning is to be used only in support of Scripture’" (Śrī Bhāṣya 2.1.12).[91]
Thus, classical Hindu thinkers only accepted reasoning and logic (hetu) if it did not contradict the Vedas. As The Laws of Manu states: “If a twice-born disparages [scripture and tradition] by relying on the science of logic (hetuśāstra), he ought to be ostracized by good people as an infidel and a denigrator of the Veda.”[92] Likewise, Hindu philosopher Bhartṛhari writes: “logical reasoning, when not inconsistent with the vedic treatise, is the eye of those who cannot see.”[93]
Metaphysics
Karma
According to Richard Gombrich, Karma in Buddhism carries a significantly different meaning than pre-Buddhist conceptions of karma.[94] For Buddhists, karma is mainly a mental process which is founded on an individual's intention (cetanā). The Buddha equated karma with the psychological impulse or intent behind the action (whether that action is bodily, verbal or mental). Thus, in Buddhism, one's intention has an ethical force that can affect one in the future (in this life or the next).[95]
Meanwhile, according to the most influential school of Hindu philosophy, the Vedanta school, the effects of karma (karma-phala, i.e. the "fruits" of karma) are controlled by God (Isvara). Vedanta argues that without God, one cannot account for the workings of karma.[96][97][98]
Ātman
Ātman is a Sanskrit word that means 'self'. For the Upanishads and for much of Hindu philosophy, knowledge of the ātman is seen as essential to attain liberation.[99] A major departure from Hindu and Jain philosophy is the Buddhist rejection of a permanent, self-existent ātman in favour of the theory of not-self (anātman).[100]
In
Furthermore, different Hindu texts and philosophical traditions describe the Self in various different (often conflicting) ways. Thus,
In many Buddhist sources the concept of ātman is rejected and critiqued in various ways. In its place, one finds terms like
Despite the rejection of ātman theories by most Buddhists, there are some similarities between certain concepts in Buddhism and the ātman doctrine. The Upanishadic "self" shares certain characteristics with
There is another important exception to the Buddhist rejection of ātman theory. This is the fact that there are certain Mahayana buddha-nature scriptures, such as the Mahāyāna Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra, which affirm a buddhist ātman theory and equate this Buddhist "ātman" or mahātman ("great self") with the doctrine of buddha-nature.[110][111] As such, modern scholars like Jones argue that these scriptures were self consciously attempting to develop a Buddhist version of ātmavāda theory (“discourse about the self”) as well as trying to adapt the doctrine of not-self (anātman).[112] However, these scriptures also make it clear that their doctrine of self is different than Hindu theories, and they also state that this ātman doctrine is a skillful means that can only be understood by also understanding not-self.[111][113]
These differences were a key point of debate among Buddhist and Hindu thinkers throughout the history of Indian philosophy. The Hindu
Brahman, the cosmic Self
In Hindu thought,
In Buddhism meanwhile, the various Hindu theories of Brahman or any ultimate which is "permanent", "always existent" or an "independent existent", are rejected as
In the Alagaddupama Sutta (
Theology
Buddhism does not accept the Hindu theory of a creator deity (Ishvara).[131][132] While Buddhism inherited some practices and ideas from the previous Indian yogic traditions, its understanding is different from that of Hindu teachings (such as those found in the Bhagavad Gita). This is because, in Buddhism, Nirvana is not attained through bhakti (devotion) to God nor is it attained through a yogic unity with Brahman/God.[133]
In the early Buddhist texts, the Buddha does not provide specific arguments against the existence of God, instead he focuses on the ethical issues that arise from this belief.[134] The Buddha mostly ignored the idea of a God as being irrelevant to his teachings.[135] However, he addresses the idea in a few passages. According to Narada Thera, the Buddha saw the idea of a creator God as problematic and as possibly leading to a kind of fatalism or ethical nihilism that leaves all ethical concerns to a God.[136] In another passage, the Buddha argues that if a Supreme creator exists, the suffering experienced by certain beings would mean that this creator is evil.[137]
The Buddha did not deny the existence of the gods (devas) of the Vedic pantheon, but rather argued that these devas, who may be in a more exalted state than humans, are still nevertheless trapped in the same cycle of suffering as other beings and are not necessarily worthy of veneration and worship. According to Buddhism, the Hindu gods like Brahma and Indra do exist.[135] However, these gods are considered to be mortal (even though they have very long lives) and thus as being subject to rebirth.[131][138] Buddhist cosmology recognizes various levels and types of devas and of other Buddhist deities, but none of these gods is considered the creator of the world or of the human race.[135]
Later Buddhist philosophers such as Nagarjuna, Vasubandhu, and Xuanzang did write more extensive critiques of the Hindu idea of God.[139][137]
Vajrayana Buddhism contains the idea of the Adi-Buddha ("First Buddha"), which some have compared to God concepts from Vedanta.[140] However, modern Tibetan Buddhist masters like the Dalai Lama and Namkhai Norbu have written that this Adi-Buddha concept is not a God but a symbol for the Dharmakaya or "basis" (ghzi) in Dzogchen thought.[141][142]
Society and castes
In the early Buddhist texts, the Buddha critiques the Brahmanical religion and social system on certain key points. For example, the Buddha disagreed with the divine basis for caste (jāti) distinctions made in the Brahmanical religion,[143] and he offered ordination to all regardless of caste (whereas in Brahmanism, only those born to brahmins can be priests and study the religious scriptures).[144] In regards to the social system (varna), although Buddha did not try to dismantle this system, he spoke out against Brahmin supremacism and the notion of any varna being superior or inferior to another.[145] Thus, the Buddha also critiqued the idea that brahmins were somehow superior or inherently pure due to their bloodline.[146] The Vasetthasutta argues that the main difference among humans are their actions and occupations, not their bloodline.[147]
Furthermore, the Buddha holds that there is one universal moral law (Dharma) that is valid for everybody. Thus, Buddhism rejects the idea of caste duty (svadharma), the idea that every person is assigned a fixed duty or law based on the caste they are born into.[146][148] Furthermore, for Buddhists, violence was wrong for all, whether one was part of the warrior caste or not.[148]
While the caste system constitutes an assumed background to the stories told in Buddhist scriptures, they do not agree with the Vedic justification for this system.[149] According to the Aggañña Sutta, all social classes or varnas arose naturally through sociological factors, they were not divinely ordained.[150][151] As Bronkhorst writes, this sutra rejects the view that the Brahmin caste was born from the mouth of God and thus are special. Instead, it states that this class of people developed because people in the past meditated and compiled scriptures.[151]
In the Aggañña Sutta, Buddha also argues that good and bad deeds are found in all castes and that moral purity comes from one's own actions, not one's birth.[152] Because of this, all castes including untouchables were welcome in the Buddhist order and when someone joined, they renounced all caste affiliation.[153][154]
The meaning of brahmin
The Buddha defined the word "brahmin" as referring to a spiritually liberated person. This replaced a distinction based on birth with one based on spiritual attainment.[155][156] The Buddha explains his use of the word brahmin in many places. In the Sutta Nipata (1.7, Vasala Sutta, verse 12), the Buddha states: "not by birth is one an outcast; not by birth is one a brahmin. By deed one becomes an outcast, by deed one becomes a brahmin."[157]
An entire chapter of the
The status of brahmins in Buddhism
While the Buddha disagreed with these brahminical ideologies, he was not anti-brahmin nor was he hostile to brahminical religion in its entirety. The early Buddhist texts often depict the Buddha cordially interacting with and teaching brahmins. These sources often state that the Buddha's path is the true fulfillment of the path the brahmins seek and the true meaning of the Vedas.[106] One example is the Brāhmaṇadhammika Sutta, in which the Buddha praises the religion of the ancient brahmin sages, though he also states that no brahmins in his time practice "the Brahmin Dharma of the brahmins of old".[161] According to this sutta, brahmins of old begged for their food, did not own land, and practiced non-violent sacrifices.[161]
Many brahmins entered the sangha and became disciples of the Buddha. Indeed, many of his key disciples were brahmins, including Sariputta, Mahakassapa, Mahakaccana, and Moggallana.[106] This trend continued into the medieval period. Later Buddhist authors like Asvaghosa, Matrceta, Asanga, Vasubandhu, and Candragomin also came from brahmin families.[162] Some early sources even praise brahmins as believers in karma and practitioners of asceticism.[106] Furthermore, Walser's analysis of the Pali sources shows that most brahmin Buddhist monks were taught teachings which mostly avoided the not-self doctrine and instead focused on samadhi. According to Walser, this indicates that there was a special place for brahmin monks within the sangha and that there might have been Buddhist brahmin monks living independently in brahmin villages.[106] He notes that such a "buddhist brahmin" appears in the later Harshacarita. He further argues that "in the sutras favoring Brahmins that appear interested in having Brahmins contribute to Buddhism as Brahmins, there is little evidence for any kind of solid boundary between Buddhism and Brahmanism".[106] Rather, it seems that more exclusivist distinctions between Vedic religion and Buddhism appeared in the works of later thinkers.[106]
Religious practices
Early Buddhist texts are often critical of prevailing religious practices and social institutions. Therefore, the Buddhist tradition has always rejected the view that certain Vedic rituals are efficacious or good. It especially rejects animal sacrifice which is taught in the Vedas (such as the Vedic Horse Sacrifice).[163][164]
However, the Buddha did not reject all sacrifices. In the Aṅguttara Nikāya the Buddha states: “I do not praise all sacrifice, nor do I withhold praise from all sacrifice."[164]
In the Sutta Pitaka, the Buddha critiques certain Vedic sacrifices while praising non-violent action as follows:
The horse sacrifice, human sacrifice, sammāpāsa, vājapeyya, niraggaḷa: the grand sacrifices, fraught with violence, do not bring great fruit. The great seers of right conduct do not attend sacrifice where goats, rams, cattle, and various creatures are slain. But when they regularly offer by family custom, sacrifices free from violence, no goats, sheep and cattle, and various creatures are slain. That sacrifice of the great seers of right conduct attend. The wise person should offer this; this sacrifice is very fruitful. For one who makes such sacrifice, it is indeed better, never worse. Such a sacrifice is truly vast and deities too are pleased.[164]
Animal sacrifice in Hinduism is still practiced in some minority sects of Hinduism.
The Buddha also rejected other Vedic practices and rituals, such as ritual bathing in rivers. In the Vatthasutta (MN 7), the Buddha states that bathing in rivers "can't cleanse a cruel and criminal person from their bad deeds."[165]
The Samaññaphala Sutta is another early Buddhist text which addresses and critiques numerous practices that were performed by brahmin priests or other Indian contemplatives at the time of the Buddha. Some of these practices include owning luxurious furniture and furnishings, wearing scents, cosmetics, jewelry and extensive decorations, talking about kings, armies, matters of state and gossiping. The text also rejects numerous ways of making a living that the Buddha held was not proper for a true ascetic such as: fortunetelling and forecasting the future, predicting eclipses, predicting the weather or disease, accounting, composing poetry, calculating auspicious dates, collecting debts, using spells against people, worshiping the sun, acting as an oracle, demonology, protection spells, fertility spells, ceremonial bathing, offering sacrificial fires, and administering various medicines and surgery.[166]
However, some of these practices which were commonly done by brahmins were eventually adopted by some Buddhists, giving rise to practices like Buddhist medicine, Buddhist magic, Buddhist poetry, Tibetan medicine, Tibetan astrology, weather-making and so on. Similarly, fire sacrifices (homa) were adopted by Vajrayana Buddhism in scriptures like the Mahavairocana sutra.[164]
Meditation
The first usage of the term samadhi is found in early Buddhist texts.[166] Later Hindu texts like the Yoga sutras also use the term samadhi to mean a deeply focused state of mind. However, they also understand this as leading to knowledge of the self or purusha, while Buddhists see samadhi as leading to insight into impermanence and not-self instead.
While there is no convincing evidence for meditation in pre-Buddhist early Brahminic texts, Wynne argues that formless meditation originated in the Brahminic or Shramanic tradition, based on strong parallels between Upanishadic cosmological statements and the meditative goals of the two teachers of the Buddha as recorded in the early Buddhist texts.[175] He mentions less likely possibilities as well.[176] Having argued that the cosmological statements in the Upanishads also reflect a contemplative tradition, he argues that the Nasadiya Sukta contains evidence for a contemplative tradition, even as early as the late Rg Vedic period.[175]
Two Upanishads written after the rise of Buddhism also contain full-fledged descriptions of yoga as a means to liberation.[177]
Spiritual liberation
Hindu theories of liberation are focused on a substantial unchanging self (
Liberation for the Brahminic yogin was thought to be the permanent realization at death of a
The Buddha taught that brahmanical states of oneness do not offer a decisive and permanent end to suffering either during life or after death and he also argued against the metaphysical theories that were at their foundation.[182][183][184] These theories were based on the Upanishadic idea that was a unity between the personal atman and the universal brahman.[185] The Buddha, in contrast, argued that states of consciousness are caused and conditioned by a yogi's mental states and meditative techniques. Thus, for the Buddha, none of these conditioned states of yogic consciousness could be an eternal Self.[184]
Nonduality
Both the Buddha's conception of the liberated person and the goal of early Brahminic yoga can be characterized as
Conversion
Since the Hindu scriptures are essentially silent on the issue of
Buddhism spread throughout Asia via proselytism and conversion.
Interactions
Hinduism and Buddhism have engaged in inter-religious exchange and dialogue for over two thousand years.[191]
Influence of Vedic religion on early Buddhism
Early Buddhist scriptures do not mention schools of learning directly connected with the Upanishads. Though the earliest Upanishads had been completed by the Buddha's time, they are not cited in the early Buddhist texts as Upanishads or Vedanta. For the early Buddhists they were likely not thought of as having any outstanding significance in and of themselves, and as simply one section of the Vedas.[192]
Certain Buddhist teachings appear to have been formulated in response to ideas presented in the early Upanishads — some cases concurring with them, and in other cases criticizing or re-interpreting them.[193][194][195]
The influence of Upanishads, the earliest philosophical texts of Hindus, on Buddhism has been a subject of debate among scholars. While
Buddhism may have been influenced by some Upanishadic ideas, it however discarded their orthodox tendencies.[197] In Buddhist texts, the Buddha is presented as rejecting Upanishadic avenues to salvation as "pernicious views".[198] Later schools of Indian religious thought were influenced by this interpretation and novel ideas of the Buddhist tradition of beliefs.[199]
According to early Buddhist scriptures, the Buddha learned the two formless attainments from two teachers, Alara Kalama and Uddaka Ramaputta respectively, prior to his enlightenment.[200] It is most likely that they belonged to the Brahmanical tradition.[201] However, he realized that the states that they taught did not lead to awakening and thus he left their communities.[171]
Furthermore, the early Buddhist texts mention ideas similar to those expounded in the early Upanishads, before controverting them and using them in different ways.[202]
Religious borrowing and appropriation
Buddha in Hinduism
Between 450 CE and the sixth century, Hindus came to see the Buddha as an
The Bhāgavata Purāṇa states that "when the Kali Age has begun, in order to delude the enemies of the gods, Visnu will be born as the Buddha."[203] In the Bhagavata and Vishnu Puranas, the main purpose of this incarnation was to destroy certain demons who had managed to learn Vedic rites and asceticism. For this purpose, Vishnu descended as the Buddha and taught a heresy to the demons so that they would abandon the Vedas and asceticism and lose their power, allowing them to be destroyed.[203] According to the Vishnu Purana, these demons also taught this heresy to others who became Buddhists and abandoned the true Dharma. This allowed the gods to kill them.[206] Similarly, the Bhaviṣya Purāṇa states that during the first stage of the Kali Yuga, when Vishnu was born as Shakyamuni, "the path of the Vedas was destroyed and all men became Buddhists. Those who sought refuge with Vishnu were deluded."[207]
In spite of the negative association of the Buddha avatar with demons and heresy, some Hindus in the post-Puranic period also came to accept the Buddha avatar's teaching as being a positive teaching. Thus, the
Helmuth von Glasenapp held that the Buddha avatar myths came from a desire in Hinduism to absorb Buddhism peacefully.[209]
Hindu deities in Buddhism
Through its history, Buddhism borrowed and integrated various
Other Hindu deities adopted into Buddhism include Hayagrīva and Ganesh. During the tantric age, the Buddhist Vajrayana tradition adopted fierce tantric deities like Mahakala and Bhairava.[212][213]
Theravada Buddhism also adopted some Hindu deities, the most important of which is Upulvan (i.e. Vishnu), who is seen as a guardian of Sri Lanka and as a bodhisattva.[214][215]
Debate
Buddhist and Hindu philosophers often engaged in debate in ancient India. This was done in person and also in written texts. According to Bronkhorst, consistent systematic debates between Buddhists and Hindus intensifies after the 5th century CE, though discussions had also occurred previously.[217]
Buddhist philosophers often criticized Hindu thinkers. Some of the most common targets for criticism were the theory of the atman and the theory of Ishvara (a creator God). Both views are criticized by Buddhist thinkers like Vasubandhu.[218] The Buddhist philosopher Nagarjuna is known for his extensive critiques of Nyaya school of Hindu philosophy.[219] The Buddhist Bhavaviveka outlined numerous Hindu philosophies in his Madhyamakahrdaya and attempted to refute them.[220]
In turn, Hindu theologians like Adi Śaṅkara, Kumārila Bhaṭṭa and various Nyaya school philosophers (like Vātsāyana) likewise critiqued Buddhist thought in their various works.[221] Śaṅkara accuses the Buddha of being "a man given to make incoherent assertions" and "propound absurd doctrines."[222]
According to Śaṅkara, the Buddhist not-self doctrine fails because a cognizer beyond cognition can be demonstrated from difference between the existence of the witness consciousness and what it knows (the numerous diverse ideas). Furthermore, a conscious agent would avoid infinite regress, since there would be no necessity to posit another knower.[223] Śaṅkara thought that no doubts could be raised about the Self, for the act of doubting implies at the very least the existence of the doubter (even though Buddhism does have corresponding theories of the mind and consciousness, see: citta and eight consciousnesses).
Vidyaranya, another Advaita Vedantic philosopher, expresses this argument as:
No one can doubt the fact of his own existence. Were one to do so, who would the doubter be?[224]
The Vedanta critiques were answered by later Buddhist thinkers. According to Klostermaier:
Kumārila Bhaṭṭa in his Śloka-vārttika, a thoroughly systematic work, attacked Buddhism methodically. It provoked the Buddhist scholar Śāntarakṣita to counterattack Hinduism in great detail in his magnum opus Tattva-saṅgraha. Quoting extensively from the Śloka-vārttika, Śāntarakṣita demolishes the Hindu positions with great ingenuity and a certain sense of humor. This polemical exchange between Hindus and Buddhists was continued on both sides for centuries. It became customary for Hindu scholars to refute rival Buddhist schools in their writings before expounding their own teachings.[114]
Intellectual influences
Both Hindu and Buddhist philosophers were influenced by each others works. Buddhist philosophers like Vasubandhu and Dignaga were influenced by the works of the Nyaya school to develop more sophisticated forms of Buddhist epistemology.[225]
Various thinkers of the Advaita Vedanta school, like Gaudapada and Adi Shankara, were also influenced by Buddhist ideas of the Madhyamaka school.[226] Furthermore, later Advaita philosophers like Śrīharṣa (11th century), and Citsukha (13th century) adopted and utilized many of the arguments of the Buddhist Nagarjuna to show the illusory nature of the world.[226]
Some Hindu philosophers (like the Saiva Utpaladeva) were also influenced by the work of Buddhist epistemologists like Dignaga and Dharmakirti.[227][228]
Many examples exist of temples and religious sites which are or were used by both faiths. These include the Swayambhunath, Bodh Gaya, Boudhanath, Muktinath, Mount Kailash, Ajanta Caves, Ellora Caves, Elephanta Caves, Budhanilkantha and Angkor Wat.
Royal support and religious competition
Buddhism originated in India and rose to prominence in the Mauryan era through royal support. It started to decline after the
In later years, there is significant evidence that both Buddhism and Hinduism were supported by Indian rulers, regardless of the rulers' own religious identities. Buddhist kings continued to revere Hindu deities and teachers and many Buddhist temples were built under the patronage of Hindu rulers.
By the eighth century,
Persecution of Buddhists
Another story is recounted by D N Jha, based on Rajatarangini, persecution of Buddhists also happened in the time of King Gonandiya-Ashoka (different from King Ashoka of Mauryan Empire). Jha writes that according to a book Rajatarangini, dated to the 12th century, Jalauka
The Asokavadana legend has been likened to a Buddhist version of Pushyamitra's attack of the Mauryas, reflecting the declining influence of Buddhism in the Shunga Imperial court. Later Shunga kings were seen as amenable to Buddhism and as having contributed to the building of the stupa at
Archeological remains of stupas have been found in Deorkothar that suggest deliberate destruction, conjectured to be one mentioned in Divyavadana about Pushyamitra.[239] However, it is unclear whether the stupas were destroyed in ancient India or a much later period, and the existence of religious violence between Hinduism and Buddhism in ancient India has been disputed.[240][241] It is unclear when the Deorkothar stupas were destroyed, and by whom. The fictional tales of Divyavadana is considered by scholars[242] as being of doubtful value as a historical record. Moriz Winternitz, for example, stated, "these legends [in the Divyāvadāna] scarcely contain anything of much historical value".[242] Similarly, Paul Williams states that the persecution claims with alleged dates of Buddha's nirvana (400 BCE) and the subsequent Pusyamitra reign, as depicted in the Mahasanghika school of early Buddhism are the "most far fetched of all the arguments and hardly worth of any further discussion".[243]
According to other scholars, the Shunga kings were seen as more amenable to Buddhism and as having contributed to the building of the stupa at Bharhut[244] and an inscription at Bodh Gaya at the Mahabodhi Temple records the construction of the temple as follows, "The gift of Nagadevi the wife of King Brahmamitra". Another inscription reads: "The gift of Kurangi, the mother of living sons and the wife of King Indragnimitra, son of Kosiki. The gift also of Srima of the royal palace shrine."[245]Notable views
By Hindus
According to Klostermaier, while "virtually all the later commentators of the Vedānta-sūtras include anti-Buddhist polemics in their works" and "anti-Buddhist polemic continued in Hindu scholarly literature and became a standard part of the Hindu scholastic curriculum" (even after the
However, during the Modern Era, as Buddhism became appreciated by European scholars, Hindu scholars also began to address Buddhism with a more friendly attitude.
Other famous Hindu figures saw the Buddha as a great Hindu that greatly influenced Hinduism. Gandhi called the Buddha "a Hindu of Hindus" that "was saturated with the best that was in Hinduism" and "gave life to some of the teachings that were buried in the Vedas and which were overgrown with weeds".[248] Gandhi also said:
It is my deliberate opinion that the essential part of the teachings of the Buddha now forms an integral part of Hinduism. It is impossible for Hindu India today to retrace her steps and go behind the great reformation that Gautama effected in Hinduism. [...] What Hinduism did not assimilate of what passes as Buddhism today was not an essential part of the Buddha's life and his teachings.[248]
Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan has claimed that the Buddha did not look upon himself as an innovator, but only a restorer of the way of the Upanishads.[249] However, there is no evidence that the Buddha accepted the Upanishads.[250]
Steven Collins sees such Hindu claims regarding Buddhism as part of a modernist effort to show that Hinduism is unique in its universalism regarding world religions.[251]
Other modern Hindus, like Vir Savarkar, criticize Buddhism on nationalist grounds. Savarkar saw Buddhism as the cause for India's downfall, since it spread the doctrine of ahimsa (nonviolence) among the warrior class and deprived India of its warriors, which allowed the Huns and other invaders to conquer India.[252]
Buddhists
Ancient Buddhists philosophers like Dharmakirti have historically been staunch critics of Hindu belief and practice. Perhaps the most vehement modern Buddhist critic of Hinduism was the Indian jurist Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar. Ambedkar blamed the Hindu caste ideology found in Hindu śāstras like the Manusmṛti for the marginalized state of the Indian Dalits. Because of this he renounced Hinduism, converted to Buddhism and convinced many Dalits to follow suit, launching the Dalit Buddhist movement.[253]
However, other Buddhists have emphasized the similarities and harmony between Buddhism and Hinduism. The
The Dalai Lama has also spoken about how Buddhists and Hindus, though they differ in their belief in a creator God, have also learned much from each other through intellectual contact and debate and that this way of dialogue between different religions is part of the greatness of India.[256]
See also
- Brahma (Buddhism)
- Buddha as an Avatar of Vishnu
- Buddhism and Eastern religions
- Buddhism and Jainism
- Creator in Buddhism
- Index of Buddhism-related articles
- Jambudvipa
- Mindful yoga
Notes
- ^ a b Lockard (2007, p. 50): "The encounters that resulted from Aryan migration brought together several very different peoples and cultures, reconfiguring Indian society. Over many centuries a fusion of Aryan and Dravidian occurred, a complex process that historians have labeled the Indo-Aryan synthesis." Lockard: "Hinduism can be seen historically as a synthesis of Aryan beliefs with Harappan and other Dravidian traditions that developed over many centuries."
- ^ a b Hiltebeitel (2007, p. 12): "A period of consolidation, sometimes identified as one of "Hindu synthesis," Brahmanic synthesis," or "orthodox synthesis," takes place between the time of the late Vedic Upanishads (c. 500 BCE) and the period of Gupta imperial ascendency" (c. 320-467 CE)."
- ^ a b See also:
- J.H. Hutton (1931), in Ghurye (1980, pp. 3–4)[subnote 1]
- Zimmer (1951, pp. 218–219)
- Tyler (1973), India: An Anthropological Perspective, Goodyear Publishing Company. In: Sjoberg (1990, p. 43).[subnote 2]
- Sjoberg (1990)
- Flood (1996, p. 16)
- Vijay Nath (2001)
- Werner (2005, pp. 8–9)
- Lockard (2007, p. 50)
- Hiltebeitel (2007)
- Hopfe & Woodward (2008, p. 79)[subnote 3]
- Samuel (2010)
- ^ While some interpretations state that Buddhism may have originated as a social reform, other scholars state that it is incorrect and anachronistic to regard the Buddha as a social reformer.[9] Buddha's concern was "to reform individuals, help them to leave society forever, not to reform the world... he never preached against social inequality". Richard Gombrich, quoted by Christopher Queen.[9][10]
- ^ See:
- White (2006, p. 28): "[T]he religion of the Vedas was already a composite of the indo-Aryan and Harappan cultures and civilizations."
- Gombrich (1996, pp. 35–36): "It is important to bear in mind that the Indo-Aryans did not enter an uninhabited land. For nearly two millennia they and their culture gradually penetrated India, moving east and south from their original seat in the Punjab. They mixed with people who spoke Munda or Dravidian languages, who have left no traces of their culture beyond some archaeological remains; we know as little about them as we would about the Indo-Aryans if they had left no texts. In fact we cannot even be sure whether some of the archaeological finds belong to Indo-Aryans, autochthonous populations, or a mixture. It is to be assumed – though this is not fashionable in Indian historiography – that the clash of cultures between Indo-Aryans and autochtones was responsible for many of the changes in Indo-Aryan society. We can also assume that many – perhaps most – of the indigenous population came to be assimilated into Indo-Aryan culture.
- ^ The date of the production of the written texts does not define the date of origin of the Puranas (Johnson 2009, p. 247). They may have existed in some oral form before being written down (Johnson 2009, p. 247).
- ^ Michaels (2004, p. 38): "The legacy of the Vedic religion in Hinduism is generally overestimated. The influence of the mythology is indeed great, but the religious terminology changed considerably: all the key terms of Hinduism either do not exist in Vedic or have a completely different meaning. The religion of the Veda does not know the ethicised migration of the soul with retribution for acts (karma), the cyclical destruction of the world, or the idea of salvation during one's lifetime (jivanmukti; moksa; nirvana); the idea of the world as illusion (maya) must have gone against the grain of ancient India, and an omnipotent creator god emerges only in the late hymns of the rgveda. Nor did the Vedic religion know a caste system, the burning of widows, the ban on remarriage, images of gods and temples, Puja worship, Yoga, pilgrimages, vegetarianism, the holiness of cows, the doctrine of stages of life (asrama), or knew them only at their inception. Thus, it is justified to see a turning point between the Vedic religion and Hindu religions." See also Halbfass 1991, pp. 1–2
- ^ University of Oslo: "During the period following Ashoka, until the end of the 7th century AD, the great gift ceremonies honoring the Buddha remained the central cult of Indian imperial kingdoms".[web 1]
- ^ Ghurye: He [Hutton] considers modern Hinduism to be the result of an amalgam between pre-Aryan Indian beliefs of Mediterranean inspiration and the religion of the Rigveda. "The Tribal religions present, as it were, surplus material not yet built into the temple of Hinduism".[25]
- ^ Tyler, in India: An Anthropological Perspective (1973), p. 68, as quoted by Sjoberg, calls Hinduism a "synthesis" in which the Dravidian elements prevail: "The Hindu synthesis was less the dialectical reduction of orthodoxy and heterodoxy than the resurgence of the ancient, aboriginal Indus civilization. In this process the rude, barbaric Aryan tribes were gradually civilised and eventually merged with the autochthonous Dravidians. Although elements of their domestic cult and ritualism were jealously preserved by Brahman priests, the body of their culture survived only in fragmentary tales and allegories embedded in vast, syncretistic compendia. On the whole, the Aryan contribution to Indian culture is insignificant. The essential pattern of Indian culture was already established in the third millennium B.C., and ... the form of Indian civilization perdured and eventually reasserted itself.[26]
- ^ Hopfe & Woodward (2008, p. 79): "The religion that the Aryans brought with them mingled with the religion of the native people, and the culture that developed between them became classical Hinduism."
- ^ a b "University of Oslo, The Mauryan Empire, study course" (PDF). Retrieved 11 April 2024.
References
- ^ Samuel 2010.
- ^ a b Lockard 2007, p. 50.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j Hiltebeitel 2007, p. 12.
- ^ a b c d e f g Larson 2009.
- ISBN 81-208-0815-0 Page 18. "There is no evidence to show that Jainismand Buddhism ever subscribed to vedic sacrifices, vedic deities or caste. They are parallel or native religions of India and have contributed much to the growth of even classical Hinduism of the present times."
- ^ Gethin (2008), p. xv.
- ISBN 978-0-670-08478-4.
- ^ Gombrich (1988), pp. 26–41.
- ^ a b Queen, Christopher. "Introduction: The Shapes and Sources of Engaged Buddhism". In Queen & King (1996), pp. 17–18.
- ^ Gombrich (1988), pp. 30–31.
- ISBN 978-81-208-0651-1.; Quote: "But the Upanishadic ultimate meaning of the Vedas, was, from the viewpoint of the Vedic canon in general, clearly a new idea.."; p. 95: The [oldest] Upanishads in particular were part of the Vedic corpus (...) When these various new ideas were brought together and edited, they were added on to the already existing Vedic..."; p. 294: "When early Jainism came into existence, various ideas mentioned in the extant older Upanishads were current,....".
- ISBN 978-3-447-03479-1.
- ISBN 978-1-317-33113-1.; Quote: "But he [Bronkhorst] talks about the simultaneous emergence of a Vedic and a non-Vedic asceticism. (...) [On Olivelle] Thus, the challenge for old Vedic views consisted of a new theology, written down in the early Upanishads like the Brhadaranyaka and the Mundaka Upanishad. The new set of ideas contained the...."
- ISBN 978-81-208-1204-8, pp. 94–103
- ^ ISBN 978-0-19-513483-4, pp. 237–240, 247–249
- ISBN 978-3-11-009896-9, p. 293
- ^ Samuel 2010, pp. 123–125.
- ISBN 978-3-11-009896-9, pp. 226–227
- ^ Shults (2014), p. 126.
- ^ Shults (2014), p. 127.
- ^ Shults (2014), pp. 125–129.
- ISBN 978-94-010-7810-8, pp. 1–30
- ^ Jaini (2001), pp. 47–48.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-7546-5369-1.
- ^ Ghurye 1980, p. 4.
- ^ Sjoberg 1990, p. 43.
- ^ a b c Flood 1996, p. 16.
- ^ Samuel 2010, pp. 41–42.
- ^ White 2006, p. 28.
- ^ a b Gomez 2013, p. 42.
- ^ Doniger 2010, p. 66.
- ^ Jones & Ryan 2006, p. xvii.
- ^ Narayanan 2009, p. 11; Lockard 2007, p. 52; Hiltebeitel 2007, p. 3; Jones & Ryan 2006, p. xviii.
- ^ Tiwari 2002, p. v; Lockard 2007, p. 52; Zimmer 1951, pp. 218–219; Larson 1995, p. 81.
- ^ Tiwari 2002, p. v.
- ^ Fuller 2004, p. 88.
- ^ Cousins 2010.
- ^ Hiltebeitel 2007, p. 13.
- ^ Vijay Nath 2001, p. 21.
- ^ a b c Vijay Nath 2001, p. 19.
- ^ Samuel 2010, pp. 193–228.
- ^ Raju 1992, p. 31.
- ^ OCLC 64098584.
- ^ (Gombrich 1997, pp. 29–30)
- ^ "The brahmin by caste alone, the teacher of the Veda, is (jokingly) etymologized as the 'non-meditator' (ajhāyaka). Brahmins who memorize the three Vedas (tevijja) really know nothing: it is the process of achieving Enlightenment—what the Buddha is said to have achieved in the three watches of that night—that constitutes the true 'three knowledges.' " R.F. Gombrich in Paul Williams, ed., "Buddhism: Critical Concepts in Religious studies." Taylor and Francis 2006, page 120.
- ISBN 978-3-89631-385-0.
- ISBN 0-415-93672-1, Hindu Ethics, pp 678
- ^ Parvesh Singla. The Manual of Life – Karma. Parvesh singla. pp. 5–7. GGKEY:0XFSARN29ZZ. Retrieved 4 June 2011.
- ^ "Karma" in: John Bowker (1997), The Concise Oxford Dictionary of World Religions, Oxford University Press.
- ISBN 0-8239-2287-1, pp 351–352
- ISBN 978-0-7914-0799-8.
- ISBN 978-0-02-865718-9
- ^ David Kalupahana (1975), Causality: The Central Philosophy of Buddhism, The University Press of Hawaii, p. 19.
- ^ Hajime Nakamura (1989), A History of Early Vedānta Philosophy: Part One, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1990 (Reprint), p. 136.
- ^ Thanissaro Bhikkhu, [1]. See note 2.
- ^ The Mahamayuri Vidyarajni Sutra 佛母大孔雀明王經 Translated into English by Cheng Yew Chung based on Amoghavajra's Chinese Translation (Taisho Volume 19, Number 982)
- ^ Paul Williams, Buddhism: The early Buddhist schools and doctrinal history ; Theravāda doctrine. Taylor & Francis, 2005, p. 147.
- ISBN 978-0-415-07310-3
- ISBN 978-0-415-07310-3
- ^ On World Religions: Diversity, Not Dissension, p. 78, Anindita N. Balslev, SAGE Publications
- ^ "namah suddhaya buddhaya"; P. 67 Cultural History From The Vayu Purana By Devendrakumar Rajaram Patil, Rajaram D. K. Patil
- ISBN 81-208-1923-3. p. 111
- ISBN 0-7914-6553-5. p. 77
- ^ Robert Thurman, "The Central Philosophy of Tibet. Princeton University Press, 1984, p. 34.
- ^ Shaw, Sarah (2006). Buddhist Meditation: An Anthology of Texts from the Pali Canon, p. 223, Routledge.
- ISBN 978-0-415-99404-0, pages 992-993
- ^ "Is there any sense in chanting Avesta prayers" (PDF). parsizoroastrianism.com. Retrieved 11 April 2024.
- ^ R.K. Payne: The Tantric Ritual of Japan. Feeding the Gods: the Shingon Fire Ritual., and Koenraad Elst: Who is a Hindu? 2001
- ^ Buddha image Archived March 21, 2007, at the Wayback Machine
- ISBN 81-208-0815-0Page 18.
- ^ "Hinduism and Buddhism". Vanessa Arellano.
- ^ a b Bartley, Christopher (2015). An Introduction to Indian Philosophy, Hindu and Buddhist Ideas from Original Sources, p. 158. Bloomsbury Academic.
- ^ Tola, Fernando. Dragonetti, Carmen (2009). "Brahamanism and Buddhism: Two Antithetic Conceptions of Society in Ancient India." p. 26: "This also implied the denial of the Shruti provided with characteristics which grant it the status of a substance. All this carried with itself also the negation of the authority of all the sacred texts of Brahmanism. Buddhism does not acknowledge to them any value as ultimate criterion of truth, as depository of the norms which regulate man's conduct as a member of society and in his relations with the Gods. Buddhism ignores the Shruti, the very foundation of Brahmanism."
- ^ "With Caṅkī [Caṅkīsutta MN 95] [PTS 2.164–2.177]". SuttaCentral. Retrieved 5 August 2022.
- ^ Bartley, Christopher (2015). An Introduction to Indian Philosophy, Hindu and Buddhist Ideas from Original Sources, p. 155. Bloomsbury Academic.
- ^ Ham, Hyoung Seok (2016). Buddhist Critiques of the Veda and Vedic Sacrifice: A Study of Bhāviveka's Mīmāṃsā Chapter of the Madhyamakahṛdayakārikā and Tarkajvālā, pp. 99-102. University of Michigan.
- ^ Ham, Hyoung Seok (2016). Buddhist Critiques of the Veda and Vedic Sacrifice: A Study of Bhāviveka's Mīmāṃsā Chapter of the Madhyamakahṛdayakārikā and Tarkajvālā, pp. 119-133. University of Michigan.
- ^ Ham, Hyoung Seok (2016). Buddhist Critiques of the Veda and Vedic Sacrifice: A Study of Bhāviveka's Mīmāṃsā Chapter of the Madhyamakahṛdayakārikā and Tarkajvālā, pp. 64-67. University of Michigan.
- ISBN 978-90-04-12556-8
- ^ Ham, Hyoung Seok (2016). Buddhist Critiques of the Veda and Vedic Sacrifice: A Study of Bhāviveka's Mīmāṃsā Chapter of the Madhyamakahṛdayakārikā and Tarkajvālā. University of Michigan.
- ISBN 0-520-21972-4. p. 2.
- ^ Valpey, Kenneth Russell; Gupta, Ravi Mohan (2013). The Bhāgavata Purāṇa, sacred text and living tradition, p. 146. Columbia University Press.
- ^ Klostermaier, Klaus K. (2007). A Survey of Hinduism, Third Edition, p. 372. SUNY Press.
- ^ David Kalupahana (1975), Causality: The Central Philosophy of Buddhism, The University Press of Hawaii, p. 185.
- ^ Randall Collins (2000), The Sociology of Philosophies: A Global Theory of Intellectual Change, Harvard University Press, p. 202. [3]
- A.K. Warder(1998), A Course in Indian Philosophy, Second edition published by Motilal Banarsidass, p. 81.
- ^ David Kalupahana (1977), Buddhist philosophy: A Historical Analysis, Published by University of Hawaii Press, pp. 23–24.
- ^ a b Tom Tillemans (2011), Dharmakirti, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
- ISBN 978-81-208-4082-9. Retrieved 31 May 2022.
- ISBN 978-81-7211-228-8.
- ^ a b Bartley, Christopher (2015). An Introduction to Indian Philosophy Hindu and Buddhist Ideas from Original Sources, p. 176. Bloomsbury Academic.
- ^ Bronkhorst, Johannes (2011), Buddhism in the Shadow of Brahmanism, pp. 186. BRILL
- ^ Bronkhorst, Johannes (2011), Buddhism in the Shadow of Brahmanism, pp. 187. BRILL
- ^ (Gombrich 1997, p. 37)
- ^ Gombrich, Richard F. (1997), How Buddhism Began. The Conditioned Genesis of the Early Teachings, p. 51. New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers Pvt. Ltd
- ^ Flood, Gavin Dennis (1996). An Introduction to Hinduism, pp. 231–232, 238. Cambridge University Press.
- ISBN 978-0-7914-1365-4, pages 68-71
- ^ Brahma Sutras (Shankara Bhashya) (5 March 2014). "Chapter III, Section II, Adhikarana VIII". www.wisdomlib.org. Retrieved 8 May 2022.
- ISBN 978-0-226-89499-7. NOTE: Similar identification also made in the Hathayogapradipika (4.50)
- ^ Peter Harvey, Consciousness Mysticism in the Discourses of the Buddha. In Karel Werner, ed., The Yogi and the Mystic. Curzon Press 1989, p. 100.
- ISBN 1-61640-240-7.
- ISBN 0-88706-139-7.
- ^ Swami Prabhavananda, The Upanishads: Breath of the Eternal, "AJA - Brihadaranyaka Upanishad Text". Archived from the original on 2 April 2012. Retrieved 1 July 2012.
- ^ a b c Peter Harvey, The Selfless Mind. Curzon Press, 1995, page 34.
- ISBN 978-0-521-11629-9.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i Joseph Walser, When Did Buddhism Become Anti-Brahmanical? The Case of the Missing Soul, Journal of the American Academy of Religion, Volume 86, Issue 1, March 2018, Pages 94–125, https://doi.org/10.1093/jaarel/lfx024
- ^ Bhagavata Purana 3.28.41 Archived February 17, 2012, at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Thanissaro Bhikkhu, The Not-Self Strategy. [4] Archived 2013-02-04 at the Wayback Machine. For the sutta see [5].
- Nanavira Thera, Nibbana and Anatta. [6]. Early Writings -> Nibbana and Anatta -> Nibbana, Atta, and Anatta.
- ^ Paul Williams, Mahayana Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations, 2nd edition, Routledge, London and New York, 2009, pp. 108-109.
- ^ a b Jones, C.V. (2020). The Buddhist Self: On Tathāgatagarbha and Ātman, pp. 55-60. University of Hawaii Press.
- ^ Jones, C.V. (2020). The Buddhist Self: On Tathāgatagarbha and Ātman, pp. 1-3. University of Hawaii Press.
- ^ Williams, Paul (2008). Mahayana Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations, p. 108. Routledge.
- ^ a b Klostermaier, Klaus K. (2007). A Survey of Hinduism, Third Edition, p. 373. SUNY Press.
- ISBN 978-1406732627, page 426 and Conclusion chapter part XII
- ISBN 978-0823931798.
- ISBN 978-0824802714, Chapter 1
- ^ Karel Werner (1994), The Yogi and the Mystic: Studies in Indian and Comparative Mysticism, Routledge, p. 24.
- ^ Alexander Wynne, The Origin of Buddhist Meditation. Routledge 2007, pp. 50, 96.
- ISBN 978-0415187077, pages 1–4
- ISBN 978-0791470824, Chapter 12: Atman and Brahman – Self and All
- ISBN 978-0199738724, pages 51–58, 111–115; For monist school of Hinduism, see: B. Martinez-Bedard (2006), Types of Causes in Aristotle and Sankara, Thesis – Department of Religious Studies (Advisors: Kathryn McClymond and Sandra Dwyer), Georgia State University, pages 18–35
- ^ Hajime Nakamura, A History of Early Vedānta Philosophy: Part One, Reprint by Motilal Banarsidass, 1990, pp. 137–138. "It has the dharma of non-perishing" is Nakamura's translation of "acavanadhammam".
- ^ Steven Collins (2000), Aggañña sutta, Sahitya Akademi, p. 58.
- ^ Peter Harvey (1995), The Selfless Mind, Curzon Press, p. 234.
- ^ Hajime Nakamura, A History of Early Vedānta Philosophy: Part One. Reprint by Motilal Banarsidass, 1990, p. 137.
- ^ Richard Francis Gombrich, How Buddhism began: the conditioned genesis of the early teachings. Continuum International Publishing Group, 1996, page 38.
- ^ a b Richard Francis Gombrich. How Buddhism began: the conditioned genesis of the early teachings. Continuum International Publishing Group, 1996, p. 39.
- ^ Richard Francis Gombrich, How Buddhism began: the conditioned genesis of the early teachings. Continuum International Publishing Group, 1996, p. 40.
- ^ See also Alexander Wynne, The Origin of Buddhist Meditation. Routledge 2007, p. 116.
- ^ a b Harvey, Peter (2019). "Buddhism and Monotheism", p. 1. Cambridge University Press.
- ]
- ISBN 978-1-58638-020-5.
- ^ Hayes, Richard P., "Principled Atheism in the Buddhist Scholastic Tradition", Journal of Indian Philosophy, 16:1 (1988:Mar) pgs 9-10
- ^ a b c Dr V. A. Gunasekara. "The Buddhist Attitude to God". Statement made to a Multi-religious Seminar. Archived from the original on 8 April 2007. Retrieved 27 April 2007.
- ^ Narada Thera (2006) "The Buddha and His Teachings," pp. 268-269, Jaico Publishing House.
- ^ a b Westerhoff, Jan. “Creation in Buddhism” in Oliver, Simon. The Oxford Handbook of Creation, Oxford University Press, Oxford, forthcoming
- ^ Kapstein, Matthew T. The Buddhist Refusal of Theism, Diogenes 2005; 52; 61.
- ^ Hayes, Richard P., "Principled Atheism in the Buddhist Scholastic Tradition", Journal of Indian Philosophy, 16:1 (1988:Mar.) pg 11-15.
- ^ B. Alan Wallace, "Is Buddhism Really Non-Theistic?" in Snow Lion Newsletter, Winter 2000, ISSN 1059-3691, Volume 15, Number 1. https://www.shambhala.com/snowlion_articles/is-buddhism-really-nontheistic/
- ^ The Dalai Lama (2020). Dzogchen: Heart Essence of the Great Perfection. p. 188. Shambhala Publications.
- ^ Norbu, Namkhai; Clemente, Adriano (1999). The Supreme Source: The Kunjed Gyalpo, the Fundamental Tantra of Dzogchen Semde, p. 94. Snow Lion Publications.
- ^ K.N. Upadhaya, The Impact of Early Buddhism on Hindu Thought. Philosophy East and West Vol.18(1968) pp.163-173, accessed at http://ccbs.ntu.edu.tw/FULLTEXT/JR-PHIL/ew27039.htm Archived 2011-06-28 at the Wayback Machine.
- ^ Mrozik, Susanne. "Upali" in MacMillan Encyclopedia of Buddhism, pg. 870. "All account emphasize that caste has no bearing on a person's status in the monastic community."
- ^ Venkatesh, Krishnan (9 February 2017). "The Buddha Talks to a Brahmin Supremacist". Tricycle. Retrieved 27 October 2021.
- ^ a b Tola, Fernando. Dragonetti, Carmen (2009). "Brahamanism and Buddhism: Two Antithetic Conceptions of Society in Ancient India."
- ^ Omvedt (2003), p. 76.
- ^ a b Bronkhorst, Johannes (2011), Buddhism in the Shadow of Brahmanism, p. 101. BRILL
- ^ Cohen, Richard S. "India" in MacMillan Encyclopedia of Buddhism, p. 358. "Though Buddhist texts take the existence of "caste" for granted, they attempt neither to justify the social system, nor to disseminate it."
- ISBN 978-0-7619-9664-4.
- ^ a b Bronkhorst, Johannes (2011), Buddhism in the Shadow of Brahmanism, p. 100. BRILL
- ^ Walshe, Maurice (2005). The Long Discourses of the Buddha. Wisdom Publications Inc. p. 216.
- ^ Mrozik, Susanne. "Upali" in MacMillan Encyclopedia of Buddhism, pg. 870.
- ^ Kancha Ilaiah, "God as Political Philosopher: Buddha's Challenge to Brahminism" p. 169
- ^ Thanissaro Bhikkhu, Handful of Leaves Vol 1, 2nd edition, page 391.
- Majjhima Nikaya3.24, or especially MN 98 for three of many examples.
- ^ Translated by Piyadassi Thera: [7].
- ^ Dhammapada XXVI, translated by Thanissaro Bhikkhu: [8].
- ^ Sue Hamilton, Early Buddhism: A New Approach: The I of the Beholder. Routledge 2000, pp. 47, 49.
- ^ Sue Hamilton, Early Buddhism: A New Approach: The I of the Beholder. Routledge 2000, p. 49.
- ^ a b "Brāhmaṇadhammika Sutta". SuttaCentral. Retrieved 16 February 2024.
- ^ Bronkhorst, Johannes (2011), Buddhism in the Shadow of Brahmanism, pp. 173-174. BRILL
- ^ Tola, Fernando. Dragonetti, Carmen (2009). "Brahamanism and Buddhism: Two Antithetic Conceptions of Society in Ancient India." p. 26.
- ^ a b c d Kurfirtova, Marie Hana. 2017. Compassionate Sacrifice: The Buddhist Incorporation of Vedic Homa Rituals. Master's thesis, Harvard Extension School.
- ^ "MN 7, SuttaCentral". SuttaCentral. Retrieved 20 July 2022.
- ^ ISBN 0-86171-103-3.
- ^ Michael Carrithers, The Buddha. Taken from Founders of Faith, published by Oxford University Press, 1986, page 30.
- ^ Alexander Wynne, The origin of Buddhist meditation. Routledge, 2007, p. 72.
- ^ Dharmacarini Manishini, Western Buddhist Review. Accessed at "Kamma in Context: The Mahakammavibhangasutta and the Culakammavibhangasutta". Archived from the original on 8 August 2013. Retrieved 8 August 2013.
- ^ Richard Gombrich, Theravada Buddhism: A Social History from Ancient Benares to Modern Colombo. Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1988, page 44.
- ^ ISBN 0-86171-072-X.
- ^ Alexander Wynne, The origin of Buddhist meditation. Routledge, 2007, p. 73.
- ^ Johannes Bronkhorst, The Two Traditions of Meditation in Ancient India. Franz Steiner Verlag Weisbaden GmbH, pages 1-17.
- ISBN 0-86171-331-1.
- ^ a b Alexander Wynne, The Origin of Buddhist Meditation. Routledge 2007, page 51.
- ^ Alexander Wynne, The Origin of Buddhist Meditation. Routledge 2007, page 56.
- ^ Randall Collins, The Sociology of Philosophies: A Global Theory of Intellectual Change. Harvard University Press, 2000, page 199.
- ^ Bryant, Edwin Francis, (2003). Krishna: The Beautiful Legend of God: Srimad Bhagavata Purana, Penguin Classics, UK.
- ^ Bryant, Edwin F. (2017). Bhakti Yoga: Tales and Teachings from the Bhagavata Purana, pp. 56-58, 73- 75. Farrar, Straus and Giroux.
- ^ a b Richard Gombrich, How Buddhism began: the Conditioned Genesis of the Early Teachings. Continuum International Publishing Group, 1996, p. 58.
- ^ Alexander Wynne, The Origin of Buddhist Meditation. Routledge 2007, page 109.
- ^ Michael Carrithers, The Buddha, 1983, page 36. Found in Founders of Faith, Oxford University Press, 1986.
- ^ Alexander Wynne, The Origin of Buddhist Meditation. Routledge 2007, p. 21.
- ^ a b Michael Carrithers, The Buddha, 1983, pp. 41–42. Found in Founders of Faith, Oxford University Press, 1986.
- ^ Alexander Wynne, The Origin of Buddhist Meditation. Routledge 2007, p. 42.
- ^ Alexander Wynne 2007, page 109
- ^ a b "Read & Learn". www.himalayanacademy.com.
- ^ Brahmachari Siddheshwar Shai v. State of West Bengal (Supreme Court of India), available at [9] Archived October 30, 2006, at the Wayback Machine
- ISBN 81-307-0092-1.
- ISBN 0-415-24495-1.
- ^ Cornille, Catherine (ed.) (2013), The Wiley-Blackwell Companion to Inter-Religious Dialogue p. 188. Wiley-Blackwell.
- ^ Hajime Nakamura, A History of Early Vedānta Philosophy: Part One. Reprint by Motilal Banarsidass Publ., 1990, pp. 133–134.
- ^ Helmuth von "Vedanta and Buddhism, A Comparative Study" (1950) 1950 Proceedings of the Akademie der Wissenschaften und Literatur
- ^ (Gombrich 1997, p. 31)
- ISBN 0-8028-2417-X, 978-0-8028-2417-2
- ISBN 978-81-206-1196-2
- ISBN 978-81-208-0880-5
- ^ Hajime Nakamura (1990) A History of Early Vedānta Philosophy: Part One. p.139, Reprint by Motilal Banarsidass Publ.
- ^ K. N. Upadhaya (1968) "The Impact of Early Buddhism on Hindu Thought (with Special Reference to the Bhagavadgiitaa)" Archived 2011-06-28 at the Wayback Machine, Philosophy East and West Vol.18 pp.163-173, University of Hawaii Press
- ^ Steven Sutcliffe, Religion: Empirical Studies. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., 2004, page 135.
- ^ John J. Holder, Early Buddhist Discourses. Hackett Publishing Company, 2006, page xi.
- ^ Hajime Nakamura, A History of Early Vedānta Philosophy: Part One. Reprint by Motilal Banarsidass Publ., 1990, p. 135.
- ^ a b c Doniger O'Flaherty, Wendy (1976). Origins of Evil in Hindu Mythology, p. 188. University of California Press.
- ^ Vinay Lal. (2007). India and its neighbors ucla.edu
- ^ Bhag-P 1.3.24 Archived 2007-09-26 at the Wayback Machine "Then, in the beginning of Kali-yuga, the Lord will appear as Lord Buddha, the son of Anjana, in the province of Gaya, just for the purpose of deluding those who are envious of the faithful theist."
- ^ Doniger O'Flaherty, Wendy (1976). Origins of Evil in Hindu Mythology, p. 189. University of California Press.
- ^ Doniger O'Flaherty, Wendy (1976). Origins of Evil in Hindu Mythology, p. 203. University of California Press.
- ^ a b c Doniger O'Flaherty, Wendy (1976). Origins of Evil in Hindu Mythology, p. 204. University of California Press.
- ^ Doniger O'Flaherty, Wendy (1976). Origins of Evil in Hindu Mythology, p. 206. University of California Press.
- ^ Studholme, Alexander (2002). The Origins of Om Manipadme Hum: A Study of the Karandavyuha Sutra. State University of New York Press. p. 39-40.
- ISBN 81-7017-247-0.
- ^ "Bhairava" in Robert E. Buswell Jr., Donald S. Lopez Jr. The Princeton Dictionary of Buddhism.
- ^ Bulcsu Siklós, The Vajrabhairava tantras: Tibetan and Mongolian versions, English translation and annotations, Institute of Buddhist Studies, 1996
- ^ Holt, J. (2000). The Hindu Buddha and the Buddhist Visnu: Religious Transformations in Indian and Sri Lanka. University of Calgary.
- ^ Doniger O'Flaherty, Wendy (1976). Origins of Evil in Hindu Mythology, p. 208. University of California Press.
- ^ "1959-156-1: Acarya Bhavaviveka Converts a Nonbeliever to Buddhism". Philadelphia Museum of Art: Acarya Bhavaviveka Converts a Nonbeliever to Buddhism. Retrieved 5 October 2014.
- ^ Bronkhorst, Johannes (2011), Buddhism in the Shadow of Brahmanism, p. 191. BRILL
- ^ Gold, Jonathan C. (2021), "Vasubandhu", in Zalta, Edward N. (ed.), The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Spring 2021 ed.), Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University, retrieved 18 July 2022
- ^ Bartley, Christopher (2015). An Introduction to Indian Philosophy, Hindu and Buddhist Ideas from Original Sources, p. 97. Bloomsbury Academic.
- ISBN 978-0-674-03274-3. This contains a translation of chapters 4 and 5.
- ^ Bartley, Christopher (2015). An Introduction to Indian Philosophy, Hindu and Buddhist Ideas from Original Sources, pp. 122-127, 167-171, 212-220. Bloomsbury Academic.
- ^ a b Klostermaier, Klaus K. (2007). A Survey of Hinduism, Third Edition, p. 374. SUNY Press.
- ISBN 978-81-208-0363-3.
- ISBN 0-8248-0271-3.
- ISBN 0-7914-3739-6(HC:acid free), p.4
- ^ a b Cornille, Catherine (ed.) (2013), The Wiley-Blackwell Companion to Inter-Religious Dialogue p. 199. Wiley-Blackwell.
- ^ Cornille, Catherine (ed.) (2013), The Wiley-Blackwell Companion to Inter-Religious Dialogue p. 200. Wiley-Blackwell.
- ^ Torella, Raffaele. "The Pratyabhijñā and the logical-epistemological school of Buddhism" in Goudriaan ed. (1992) Ritual and Speculation in Early Tantrism: Studies in Honor of Andre Padoux pp. 327-346. SUNY Press.
- ^ January 2008, VOL. 213, #1
- ^ Hill, Christopher. South Asia: An Environmental History. ABC-CLIO 2008, page 35. "Through Kalidas' work we begin to see the ascension of Hinduism, taking the place of Buddhism as the dominant religion."
- ^ Morley, Grace. 2005. Indian Sculpture. Roli Books. pg. 28. "By the end of the Gupta period Buddhism was no longer dominant, even in the north, where it had prevailed for so long."
- ^ Inden, Ronald. "Ritual, Authority, And Cycle Time in Hindu Kingship." In JF Richards, ed., Kingship and Authority in South Asia. New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1998, p.67, 55"before the eighth century, the Buddha was accorded the position of universal deity and ceremonies through which a king attained to imperial status were elaborate donative ceremonies entailing gifts to Buddhist monks and the installation of a symbolic Buddha in a stupa....This pattern changed in the eighth century. The Buddha was replaced as the supreme, imperial deity by one of the Hindu gods (except under the Palas of eastern India, the Buddha's homeland)...Previously the Buddha had been accorded imperial-style worship (puja). Now as one of the Hindu gods replaced the Buddha at the imperial centre and pinnacle of the cosmo-political system, the image or symbol of the Hindu god comes to be housed in a monumental temple and given increasingly elaborate imperial-style puja worship."
- ^ Holt, John. The Buddhist Visnu. Columbia University Press, 2004, p.12,15 "The replacement of the Buddha as the "cosmic person" within the mythic ideology of Indian kingship, as we shall see shortly, occurred at about the same time the Buddha was incorporated and subordinated within the Brahmanical cult of Visnu."
- ^ a b Jha, DN (1 June 2018). "Monumental Absence The destruction of ancient Buddhist sites". Archived from the original on 9 July 2018. Retrieved 9 July 2018.
- .
- ^ Harper, Francesca (12 May 2015). "The 1,000-year-old manuscript and the stories it tells". University of Cambridge. Retrieved 3 June 2018.
- ISBN 9788120818170.
- ISBN 81-208-0955-6.
- ^ "Article on Deokothar Stupas possibly being targeted by Pushyamitra". Archaeology.org. 4 April 2001. Retrieved 27 May 2013.
- ISBN 81-208-0955-6, p. 223
- ^ O'Neill, Tom (January 2008). India's Ancient Art. Benoy K. Behl. National Geographic Magazine.
The flow between faiths was such that for hundreds of years, almost all Buddhist temples, including the ones at Ajanta, were built under the rule and patronage of Hindu kings.
- ^ ISBN 0-86171-295-1, Introduction, Preview summary of book Archived 2017-08-05 at the Wayback Machine
- ISBN 978-0-415-33227-9.
- ISBN 978-81-208-0955-0, p. 223
- ^ B.M. Barua (March 1930). "Old Buddhist Shrines at Bodh-Gaya Inscriptions". The Indian Historical Quarterly. VI (1): 1–31. Retrieved 2 January 2023.
- ^ Sister Nivedita: The Master as I Saw Him. Koenraad Elst 2001: Who is a Hindu
- ^ a b Klostermaier, Klaus K. (2007). A Survey of Hinduism, Third Edition, p. 375. SUNY Press.
- ^ a b Klostermaier, Klaus K. (2007). A Survey of Hinduism, Third Edition, p. 376. SUNY Press.
- ^ Radhakrishnan. Indian Philosophy, vol.2, p. 469.
- ^ Michael Carrithers, The Buddha. Taken from Founders of Faith, published by Oxford University Press, 1986, p. 38.
- ^ Collins, Steven (1990). Selfless Persons. Cambridge University Press, p. 9.
- ^ Klostermaier, Klaus K. (2007). A Survey of Hinduism, Third Edition, p. 379. SUNY Press.
- ^ Klostermaier, Klaus K. (2007). A Survey of Hinduism, Third Edition, p. 378. SUNY Press.
- ^ Misra, Neelesh. "Dalai Lama Criticizes Proselytizing". ABC News. Retrieved 18 July 2022.
- ^ The 14th Dalai Lama, (official website) (18 July 2022). "His Holiness the Dalai Lama Chief Guest at 1st World Hindu Congress". dalailama.com. Retrieved 18 July 2022.
{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) - ISSN 0971-751X. Retrieved 18 July 2022.
Bibliography
- Cousins, L.S. (2010), "Buddhism", The Penguin Handbook of the World's Living Religions, Penguin, ISBN 978-0-14-195504-9
- Doniger, Wendy (2010), The Hindus: An Alternative History, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-959334-7
- ISBN 978-0-521-43878-0
- Fuller, C. J. (2004), The Camphor Flame: Popular Hinduism and Society in India, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, ISBN 978-0-691-12048-5
- Gethin, Rupert (2008), Sayings of the Buddha, Oxford University Press
- ISBN 978-1-4128-3885-6
- ISBN 978-0-415-07585-5
- Gombrich, Richard F. (1996), Theravāda Buddhism. A Social History from Ancient Benares to Modern Colombo, London: Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-07585-5
- ISBN 81-215-0812-6.
- Gomez, Luis O. (2013), Buddhism in India. In: Joseph Kitagawa, "The Religious Traditions of Asia: Religion, History, and Culture", Routledge, ISBN 978-1-136-87590-8
- Halbfass, Wilhelm (1991), Tradition and Reflection, SUNY Press, ISBN 978-0-7914-0361-7
- Hiltebeitel, Alf (2002), Hinduism. In: Joseph Kitagawa, "The Religious Traditions of Asia: Religion, History, and Culture", Routledge, ISBN 978-1-136-87597-7
- Hiltebeitel, Alf (2007), Hinduism. In: Joseph Kitagawa, "The Religious Traditions of Asia: Religion, History, and Culture". Digital printing 2007, Routledge, ISBN 978-1-136-87590-8
- Hopfe, Lewis M.; ISBN 978-0-13-606177-9
- ISBN 978-81-208-1776-0
- Johnson, W.J. (2009), A Dictionary of Hinduism, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-861025-0
- Jones, Constance; Ryan, James D. (2006), Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Infobase Publishing, ISBN 978-0-8160-7564-5
- Larson, Gerald (1995), India's Agony Over Religion, SUNY Press, ISBN 978-0-7914-2411-7
- Larson, Gerald James (2009), Hinduism. In: "World Religions in America: An Introduction", pp. 179-198, Westminster John Knox Press, ISBN 978-1-61164-047-2
- Lockard, Craig A. (2007), Societies, Networks, and Transitions. Volume I: to 1500, Cengage Learning, ISBN 978-0-618-38612-3
- Michaels, Axel (2004), Hinduism. Past and present, Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press
- Narayanan, Vasudha (2009), Hinduism, The Rosen Publishing Group, ISBN 978-1-4358-5620-2
- Nath, Vijay (2001), "From 'Brahmanism' to 'Hinduism': Negotiating the Myth of the Great Tradition", Social Scientist, 29 (3/4): 19–50, JSTOR 3518337
- Queen, Christopher S.; King, Sallie B., eds. (1996). Engaged Buddhism: Buddhist Liberation Movements in Asia. State University of New York Press. ISBN 978-0-7914-2844-3.
- Raju, P. T. (1992), The Philosophical Traditions of India, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers
- Robinson, Richard; Johnson, Willard; Thanissaro, Bhikkhu (Geoffrey DeGraff) (2005). Buddhist Religions: A Historical Introduction. Belmont, California: Wadsworth/Thomson Learning. ISBN 0-534-55858-5.
- Samuel, Geoffrey (2010), The Origins of Yoga and Tantra. Indic Religions to the Thirteenth Century, Cambridge University Press
- Shults, Brett (2014), "On the Buddha's Use of Some Brahmanical Motifs in Pali Texts", Journal of the Oxford Centre for Buddhist Studies, 6: 121–129, archived from the original on 27 April 2016, retrieved 20 May 2016
- Sjoberg, Andree F. (1990), "The Dravidian Contribution to the Development of Indian Civilization: A Call for a Reassessment", Comparative Civilizations Review, 23: 40–74
- Tiwari, Shiv Kumar (2002), Tribal Roots of Hinduism, Sarup & Sons
- Werner, Karel (2005), A Popular Dictionary of Hinduism, Routledge, ISBN 978-1-135-79753-9
- White, David Gordon (2006), Kiss of the Yogini: "Tantric Sex" in its South Asian Contexts, University of Chicago Press, ISBN 978-0-226-02783-8
- Zaehner, R. C. (1969), The Bhagavad Gītā, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-501666-1
- Zimmer, Heinrich (1951), Philosophies of India, Princeton University Press
External links
- Hindu and Buddhist gods
- Gandhi and Lord Buddha
- Enlightenment in Buddhism and Advaita Vedanta: Are Nirvana and Moksha the Same? by David Loy, National Univ. of Singapore.
- Buddhism, the Fulfilment of Hinduism
- Enlightenment: Buddhism Vis-à-Vis Hinduism by Acharya Mahayogi Sridhar Rana