Chinese Buddhism

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Institutions of Chinese Buddhism

Buddhist monks at Jintai Temple in Zhuhai, Guangdong

Interior of the Ling Shan Brahma Palace in Wuxi, Jiangsu

A Buddhist house assembly

Part of a series on
Chinese Buddhism
History Buddhism in Central Asia Dharmaguptaka Silk Road transmission Dunhuang manuscripts Four Buddhist Persecutions in China
Major figures Lokakṣema Kumārajīva Sengzhao Jizang Paramartha Xuanzang Kuiji Woncheuk Daoxuan Huiyuan Tanluan Daochuo Shandao Zhiyi Zhanran Fazang Chengguan Śubhakarasiṃha Vajrabodhi Amoghavajra Bodhidharma Huineng Daman Hongren Mazu Daoyi Hongzhi Zhengjue Dahui Zonggao Linji Zongmi Hanshan Deqing Zhu Hong Ouyi Zhixu Miyun Yuanwu Taixu Tanxu Hsu Yun Hsuan Hua Yang Wenhui Yin Shun Nan Huai-Chin Nenghai
Traditions Chan Tiantai Huayan Pure Land Weishi Sanlun Esoteric Buddhism Humanistic Buddhism
Texts Chinese Buddhist canon Taishō Tripiṭaka
Architecture Buddhist architecture in China
Sacred Sites Mount Wutai Mount Emei Mount Jiuhua Mount Putuo Mount Lu Tiantai Mountain White Horse Temple
Culture Buddhist Association of China Cuisine Martial arts Diyu
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Chinese Buddhism or Han Buddhism (

From its inception, Chinese Buddhism has been influenced by native Chinese religions and philosophy, especially Confucianism and Taoism, but also Chinese folk religion.

History

The establishment of Buddhism in China

Buddhist missionaries began bringing Buddhism to China during the Han dynasty (206 BCE-220 CE) and the religion was present in China at the beginning of the common era.^[7][2][8]

Buddhist missionaries made use of both the overland Central Asian Silk Road and the maritime routes.^[9] Initially Buddhism was poorly understood and often confused with and mixed with Taoism.^[10] The Chinese saw many similarities between the two religions.^[11] There was also much criticism leveled at the new foreign religion by the Confucian elites.^[2]

One of the central tasks of the initial missionaries was the translation of Buddhist texts. The first surviving translations of Buddhist texts into Chinese were those of the 2nd century Parthian An Shigao (Ch. 安世高), who worked in the capital of Luoyang. His work was followed by the extensive Mahayana translations of the Kushan monk Lokakṣema (Ch. 支婁迦讖, active c. 164–186 CE), as well as the work of Dharmarakṣa (3rd century).^[12][13]

During this early period, the Dharmaguptaka school was very influential in establishing Buddhism in China.^[14] This resulted in the widespread adoption of the Dharmaguptaka school's Vinaya (monastic rule) by all Chinese Buddhist schools.

The arrival of the Kuchan scholar Kumārajīva (334–413 CE) was a key event. Unlike the previous translators, Kumārajīva was supported by the state and given the title of national preceptor.^[15] The numerous high quality translations of his translation team had a great impact on Chinese Buddhism. He is also known for introducing the Madhyamaka school of Buddhist philosophy, which would later be called Sanlun (the "Three Treatise school").^[16] His work also established a thoroughly Indic foundation for Chinese Buddhist philosophy, which previously had been heavily influenced by Taoist philosophy.^[17]

"By the 460s," Buddhism was a "mainstream" institution in China, and its iconography and art were widely recognized.^[18] The Dunhuang and Yungang cave complexes are a great example of early Chinese Buddhist art from this period.^[19]

Another important translator was Paramārtha (Zhēndì, 499–569 CE). Paramārtha, along with his team of Chinese disciples, translated numerous works on Abhidharma, Yogachara philosophy, and other Mahayana texts.^[20][21] The work of other sixth century translators like Bodhiruci and Ratnamati also contributed to the establishment of a new Chinese Yogacara school, also known as the "Consciousness-Only school" (唯識宗; pinyin: Wéishí-zōng).

The development of a Chinese Buddhism

The 6th and 7th centuries saw a flowering of new and unique Chinese Buddhist traditions, including:

• The Tiantai school was mainly founded by the efforts of master Zhiyi (538–597 CE) and was based on the Lotus Sutra and the works of Zhiyi.
• The
  Avatamsaka Sutra) school, based on the works of Chinese masters like Dushun (557–640), Zhiyan (602–668), and Fazang
  (643–712).
• The
  Amitabha and the works of Pure Land masters like Tanluan (476–542), Daochuo (562–645), and Shandao
  (613–81).
• Chan Buddhism, based on the teachings of various Chan masters such as Bodhidharma, Dazu Huike (487–593), Sengcan (d. 606), Dayi Daoxin (580–651), and Hongren (601–674).

During the Tang dynasty, the monk Xuanzang (602–664) journeyed to India and back, and wrote extensive and detailed reports of his findings, which have subsequently become important for the study of India during this period. Xuanzang also brought back many Buddhist texts and led a translation team, which is responsible for many influential Chinese translations of classic Buddhist works.^[22] His efforts led to the establishment of the idealistic Yogachara (Consciousness-only) tradition in East Asia.

The Tang era was one of the golden ages of Buddhism in China.

A famous proponent of Buddhism during the Tang era was empress Wu Zetian (r. 690–705) and she is known for her promotion of the Longmen cave complex.^[25][26] She also depicted herself as a bodhisattva.^[27]

The next important event in the history of Chinese Buddhism was the arrival of

The Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period (907–960/979), an era of great political upheaval and civil war, also negatively impacted Chinese Buddhism. Various Chinese Buddhist traditions contracted or died out during this period.

The

Likewise, during this time, the works of Hongzhi Zhengjue (1091–1157) developed the silent sitting method of "silent illumination".^[31] Both of these traditions of Chan practice were very influential (and remain so) on East Asian Zen Buddhism (including on Japanese Zen, Korean Seon, and Vietnamese Thiền).

The Yuan dynasty (1271–1368) patronized Tibetan Buddhism and thus, during this period there was a steady growth of this tradition in China.^[32] A common perception was that this patronage of lamas caused corrupt forms of tantra to become widespread.^[32] When the Yuan dynasty was overthrown and the Ming dynasty was established, the Tibetan lamas were expelled from the court, and this form of Buddhism was denounced as not being an orthodox path.^[32]

During the Ming dynasty (1368–1644), there was a revival of the study of native Chinese traditions like Tiantai, Huayan, and Yogachara, and most monks belonged to the two dominant Chan schools: Linji and Caodong.^[33][34][35] At this point in its history, Chinese Buddhism had also become quite eclectic, drawing from all the main Chinese traditions. An example of this is the figure of Hanshan Deqing, one of the great reformers of Chinese Buddhism.^[36] Like many of his contemporaries, he advocated the dual practice of the Chan and Pure Land methods.^[36] He also directed practitioners in the use of mantras as well as scripture reading. He was also renowned as a lecturer and commentator and was admired for his strict adherence to the precepts.^[36]

Modernity

During the Qing dynasty (1644–1911), the imperial court shifted its support to the Gelug school of Tibetan Buddhism.^[37] Chinese Buddhism suffered much during the various imperial and internal conflicts of the Qing dynasty, especially the devastating Taiping rebellion (December 1850 – August 1864), which saw many temples destroyed and scriptures burned by rebels.^[38] This era also saw the arrival of Christian missionaries to China, a right which had been granted to Western powers after the Opium Wars.^[37]

During the

After the Chinese Communist Revolution, many Buddhists and monastics followed the Republican exodus to Taiwan. In the latter half of the twentieth century, many new Buddhist temples and organizations were set up by the exiles in Taiwan, including Fo Guang Shan, Dharma Drum Mountain, and Tzu Chi.^[2] These organizations also became influential back in Mainland China after the end of the Cultural Revolution.^{[citation needed]}

Chinese Buddhism suffered extensive repression, persecution, and destruction during the Cultural Revolution (from 1966 until

During the normalization period (Boluan Fanzheng, 1977 to early 80s) led by Deng Xiaoping, a new revival of Chinese Buddhism began to take place.^[43][44][45] This was a period which saw the restoration of damaged Buddhist temples like Guoqing Temple and Guanghua Temple, as well as the return of monastic ordination and Buddhist institutions. Monks like Zhenchan (真禪) and Mengcan (夢參), who were trained in the Chan and Huayan traditions, traveled widely throughout China as well as other countries, such as the United States, and lectured on both Chan and Huayan teachings.^[46] Monks who had fled overseas were also allowed back into the mainland.^{[citation needed]}

During the late 20th century, Chinese Buddhism also became established in some Western countries, especially in the United States. The first Chinese master to teach Westerners in North America was

The Buddhist Association of China is the sole official government supervisory organ of Buddhism in the country.^[47] It is directed by the United Front Work Department of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP).^[48]

Part of a series on
Mahāyāna Buddhism
Teachings Bodhisattva Buddhahood Mind of Awakening Buddha-nature Skillful Means Transcendent Wisdom Transcendent Virtues Emptiness Two truths Consciousness-only Three bodies Three vehicles Non-abiding Nirvana One Vehicle Bodhisattva Precepts Bodhisattva vow Bodhisattva stages Pure Lands Luminous mind Dharani Three Turnings
Buddhas and Bodhisattvas Shakyamuni Amitabha Adi-Buddha Akshobhya Prajñāpāramitā Devī Bhaiṣajyaguru Vairocana Mañjuśrī Avalokiteśvara Vajrapāṇi Vajrasattva Maitreya Kṣitigarbha Ākāśagarbha Samantabhadra Tara Wrathful deities
Mahayana sutras Prajñāpāramitā sūtras Lotus Sūtra Buddhāvataṃsaka Sūtra Mahāratnakūṭa Sūtra Mahāsaṃnipāta Sūtra Vimalakirtinirdeśa Pure Land Sutras Lalitavistara Sūtra Samādhirāja Sūtra Saṃdhinirmocana Sūtra Tathāgatagarbha sūtras Śrīmālādevī Sūtra Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra Śūraṅgama Samādhi Sūtra Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra Ghanavyūha sūtra Golden Light Sutra Tathāgataguhyaka Sūtra Kāraṇḍavyūha Sūtra
Major schools Mādhyamaka Yogācāra Tiantai Tendai Huayan Zen Shingon Pure Land Nichiren Vajrayāna Tibetan Buddhism Dzogchen
Key figures Nāgārjuna Ashvaghosha Āryadeva Lokakṣema Kumārajīva Asanga Vasubandhu Sthiramati Buddhapālita Dignāga Bhāvaviveka Dharmakīrti Candrakīrti Zhiyi Bodhidharma Huineng Shandao Xuanzang Fazang Amoghavajra Saichō Kūkai Shāntideva Shāntarakshita Wohnyo Mazu Daoyi Jinul Dahui Zonggao Hongzhi Zhengjue Hōnen Shinran Dōgen Nichiren Śaṅkaranandana Virūpa Ratnākaraśānti Abhayākaragupta Nāropā Atisha Sakya Pandita Dolpopa Rangjung Dorje Tsongkhapa Longchenpa Hakuin Hanshan Taixu D. T. Suzuki Sheng-yen 14th Dalai Lama Thích Nhất Hạnh
Regional traditions Han Chinese Japan Korea Vietnam Tibetan Nepal Newar Bhutan Mongolia Malaysia Indonesia West
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Teaching and practice

Doctrine and texts

Chinese Buddhism is a

Chinese Buddhism contains a wide array of religious practices and observances. Ritual and devotional practices are commonly seen as generating karmic merit, which can bring about positive results in this life or the next.^[2]

According to Mario Poceski, for the vast majority of ordinary Chinese Buddhists, "prevalent expressions of Buddhist piety were (and still are) channeled via a variety of popular modes of worship and ritual observance."

Keeping sets of ethical rules, like the classic Buddhist five precepts, are another key part of Buddhist practice. Taking up the ethical precepts in a ceremony, along with taking refuge in the three jewels (Buddha, Dharma, and Sangha), is a common way of entering the Buddhist path.^[2] Another important set of ethical precepts is the "bodhisattva precepts" of the Brahmā's Net Sutra, which are often practiced by both laity and monastics.^[2] Acts of charity or social service (結緣) are also an important of part of Chinese Buddhist ethics.

Another key part of Chinese Buddhism is engaging in Buddhist meditations such as chanting the Buddha's name (nianfo), which is the core practice of Pure Land Buddhism, and seated meditation (zazen), which is the focus of the Chan tradition. The practice of recitation of the Buddha's name is commonly done in a group setting, sometimes as part of an intensive nianfo recitation retreat, which can last for several days. These retreats might also include chanting sutras, taking of the eight precepts, silent meditation, and Dharma lectures.^[51]

Textual practices are also commonly practiced by monks and laypersons. These include printing, copying, propagating and reciting Buddhist scriptures, studying Buddhist texts, and attending lectures.^[52][53] Buddhist temples may also have special elements associated with sacred texts, such as lecture halls or dharma halls, libraries, and scripture platforms (施法壇), a kind of sacred podium.^[52][53]

Other important Buddhist rituals are those related to death, which is seen as a key moment for Buddhists who want to attain a good rebirth in the pure land of a Buddha (the most popular being Amitabha's pure land).^[51] The focus of these rituals is to keep the dying person free of distractions and offer spiritual support (so they can focus their minds on Amitabha Buddha through the repetition of the Buddha's name).^[51] It is commonly believed that during these rituals one can experience auspicious signs, like visions of Amitabha and bright lights.^[51]

Pilgrimages to well-known monasteries and sites, like the Four Sacred Buddhist Mountains (Mount Wutai, Mount Emei, Mount Jiuhua, and Mount Putuo) are also undertaken by monastics and lay practitioners alike.^[54]

Another popular practice is the use of mantras and

Various Mahāyāna Buddhist deities are venerated in Chinese Buddhism, most of which are Buddhas and bodhisattvas. Some of the key figures include:^[56][2]

• Medicine Buddha
  .
• Avalokiteśvara, the bodhisattva of compassion who has various forms (such as the thousand arms form), the most popular being the motherly Guānyīn.
• Amitābha Buddha (pinyin: Ēmítuó fó, "Limitless Light"), also called Amitāyus ("Limitless Life"), associated with the pure land of Sukhavati, which many hope to reach after death
• Vairocana (Dàrì Rúlái), the cosmic primordial Buddha
• Medicine Buddha
  (Yàoshī fó), associated with medicinal powers
• Maitreya bodhisattva (Mílè púsà), is seen as the Buddha of the future, sometimes depicted as a fat laughing Buddha
• Manjushri bodhisattva (Wénshū púsà), the bodhisattva of wisdom, associated with Mount Wutai, often appears mounted on a lion.
• Samantabhadra bodhisattva (Pǔxián púsà), often depicted riding an elephant, is associated with confession and repentance rites and the bodhisattva vows.
• Kṣitigarbha
  bodhisattva (Dìzàng púsà), the savior monk associated with rites for the deceased
• The Eighteen Arhats (Shíbā Luóhàn)
• The Four Great Heavenly Kings (Sìdà Tiānwáng)
• The Twenty-Four Protective Deities (Chinese: 二十四諸天; pinyin: Èrshísì Zhūtiān), a common ser ot Chinese Buddhist protector deities (dharmapalas).

Chinese Buddhist temples usually include numerous images and statues of Buddhas and bodhisattvas. They are often ritually carved and installed as part of a consecration ritual that may include chanting and scripture reading.^[57] Devotion towards these are a major part of Chinese Buddhism. As Chün-fang Yü writes, "people in China worship Buddhas and bodhisattvas in rituals, write poems and novels about them, praise them in songs and hymns, and tell stories and stage plays about them. And above all else, they worship the images of these holy beings."^[58]

According to Mario Poceski, Chinese Buddhist temples generally follow a traditional Chinese palace layout. They "consist of a series of halls and courtyards that are arranged symmetrically around a central axis, which usually runs from north to south. The main hall is typically a large building that is centrally located along the main axis. In larger monasteries or temples, a number of ancillary halls also house the images of lesser Buddhist divinities, giving residents and visitors alike a wide choice of objects of worship and supplication."^[2]

Another common structure is a pagoda, which may contain Buddhist relics and statues or images of Buddhas and bodhisattvas.^[59]

There is a conception of an "impersonal god" in Chinese Buddhism likely inspired by Shangdi.^[60]

Monasticism

Buddhist monasticism is an important part of Chinese Buddhism. Chinese Buddhist monastics (both male and female) follow the Dharmaguptaka Vinaya, which is known as the Four Part Vinaya (Sifen lü) in China and has 250 rules for monks and 348 for nuns.^[2]

Buddhist monks and nuns perform numerous religious practices and services, including offerings to altars, liturgical services, circumambulating the Buddha hall, preaching the scriptures, Dharma lectures, ritual meals, and chanting at mealtime, as well as confession and repentance rituals.^[53]

There have been many different types of monasteries throughout Chinese Buddhist history. There are city monasteries, country monasteries, and monasteries deep in the mountains. Some monasteries may be large and rich, with thousands of monastics, while others are small with just a few monastics. The most prestigious monasteries have support from rich elites, and the smallest are usually in small villages.^[61]

Vegetarianism

Vegetarianism is widely promoted and practiced in Chinese Buddhism, though not all Chinese Buddhists are necessarily vegetarians.^[2] The monastic Vinaya does not require vegetarianism, but the practice is promoted in various Mahayana sutras, like the Lankavatara Sutra.^[2]

Monastics are often required to be vegetarian and meat is often banned in Buddhist temples and monasteries.^[2] Other dietary restrictions may include avoiding eggs, dairy, and certain types of leeks.^[2]

Devout laity are also often vegetarian. Some laypersons may practice being vegetarian on certain sacred days, during religious retreats, or on certain festivals.

Temples and monasteries often have vegetarian dining halls and vegetarian feasts are a common feature of popular celebrations.^[2]

Laypeople in Chinese Buddhism

In Chinese Buddhism,

Chinese Buddhism also include influences from native Chinese Religions, including Confucianism, Taoism, and Chinese folk religion.^[2] This ecumenical attitude and embrace of religious pluralism has been a common feature of Chinese culture since ancient times.^[2] For example, Chinese Buddhists may practice qigong, tai chi, and gongfu, venerate native Chinese deities (like Guan Yu, Mazu, and Monkey King), engage in ancestor veneration, practice traditional Chinese medicine, and make use of Feng shui and Chinese talismans. Chinese religions like Taoism and Confucianism were also, in turn, influenced by Chinese Buddhism.^[2]

The ancient idea of the compatibility of the Three Teachings (Confucianism, Buddhism, and Taoism) is common in China and is expressed in the phrase the three teachings harmonious as one (三敎合一; Sānjiào Héyī).^[62][63] Chinese Buddhism developed Chinese mythologies and philosophies which incorporated and accommodated Chinese religions. For example, Chinese Buddhist apocryphal texts tell of how Laozi was actually a disciple of the Buddha and also how Confucius was a bodhisattva.^[8] Chinese Buddhist thinkers like Guifeng Zongmi argued that all three teachings should be followed and practiced since they all contain important truths (though he also considered Buddhism to reveal the highest truth).^[64]

One such important element of Chinese Buddhism are religious practices focused on one's ancestors, something that is shared in common with other traditional Chinese religions. This can include paying respect to them at various sites and at festivals like the

The ritual burning of incense (shaoxiang, jingxiang) is another common religious practice in Buddhist spaces derived from traditional Chinese religion. During the Zhou dynasty, the Chinese believed that smoke resulting from burning of sandalwood would act as a bridge between the human world and the spirits.^[65] The practice remains a common offering in Chinese Buddhism, which it shared with other Chinese religions.

Another common feature of Chinese religion is

Major Chinese Buddhist traditions

Traditional Chinese Buddhist scholars like Sheng-yen enumerate thirteen Buddhist traditions or schools (Chinese: zōng).^[71] This list is also found in traditional Japanese Buddhist histories, particularly that of Gyōnen (1240–1321).^[72]

Over time, some of these schools survived or were revived as living traditions, while others are now defunct historical traditions or were absorbed into other schools. These "traditions" are not rigid designations and there has always been much intermixing, and many temples and communities are influenced by many of these traditions (and also by local Chinese custom and traditional Chinese religions like Taoism). Some traditions may also have numerous sub-schools or sects.^[73]

The various Chinese Buddhist traditions are not exclusivist, and are better seen as trends, emphases, schools of thought, or "dharma-gates" (法門, fǎmén), instead of as separate sects.^[23][74] Chün-fang Yü quotes a famous saying which describes the harmonious situation in Chinese Buddhism, "Tiantai and Huayan for doctrine, Chan and Pure Land for practice."^[75]

As Mario Poceski notes, Chinese Buddhism "lacks clear [sectarian divisions of the kind we find in other Buddhist traditions".^[2] All Chinese monastics follow the same ordination procedures and monastic precepts, and as such, there is no rigid separation between "schools" or "sects". While traditions like Chan and Tiantai are understood as distinctive teachings, they are all part of the single Chinese Buddhist tradition, which is "characterized by broad-minded acceptance of a variety of styles of discourse, modes of worship, and approaches to spiritual cultivation."^[2] Due to Chinese Buddhism's acceptance of diversity, ecumenism, and difference, most Chinese Buddhists would not identify themselves as being part of a specific "school".^[2] That being said, there are still disagreements and doctrinal debates within the community.^[2]

The "thirteen schools" are:^[71][76][77]

• The
  Chengshi school (historical), which focused on the study of the Tattvasiddhi-Śāstra
  ("The Treatise that Accomplishes Reality"; Chinese: 成實論, Chengshilun).
• The Kosa School (俱舍宗) (historical), based on the study of
  Abhidharmakośa of Vasubandhu
  .
• The "Three Treatises" school (三論, Sānlùn, Chinese Madhyamaka), founded by Kumarajiva (344–413 CE).
• The Pure Land school
• The Nirvana school (historical), based on the Mahāyāna Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra translated by Dharmarakṣa (c. 233–310); this was later absorbed into the Tiāntāi school.^[76]
• The Dilun school (based on the
  Daśabhūmikā sutra translated by Bodhiruci); this was later absorbed into the Huayan tradition.^[76]
• The She lun school (based on Asanga's Summary of the Mahayana translated by Paramartha); it was later absorbed into the Huáyán and Consciousness-only schools.^[76][71]
• The Consciousness Only school (唯識宗; Wéishí, Yogācāra), a.k.a. Faxiang ("dharma characteristics") school, founded by Xuanzang (602–664) and based on his Chengweishilun (The Demonstration of Consciousness-only).
• The Tiantai school, also known as the Lotus school, due to their focus on the Lotus Sutra.
• The
  Avatamsaka Sutra
  .
• The Vinaya school or Nanshan school, a historical tradition which focused on the Dharmaguptaka monastic discipline, established by the monk Daoxuan (596–667).^[78]
• The
  Chan (Dhyana) school, i.e. the Zen tradition attributed to the founder Bodhidharma, which focuses on sitting meditation (zuòchán) and developed numerous sub-schools like Caodong and Linji
  .
• The Zhenyan school (真言宗, "true word", "mantra" school), i.e. Chinese Esoteric Buddhism. Also called Mìjiao (密教; Esoteric Teaching), Mìzōng (密宗; "Esoteric Tradition"), or Tángmì (唐密; "Tang Esoterica").

Many of these traditions were also later exported to other East Asian nations, like Japan, Korea, and Vietnam.

According to Sheng-yen, the Chan school is the most popular school in China today, though this is often combined with Pure Land practice as well.^[79] Sheng-yen also notes that the Tiantai, Huayan, Three Treatises, Consciousness Only, Vinaya, and Esoteric traditions are also present in modern Chinese Buddhism, though to a lesser extent.^[79]

There is also a modernist movement called Humanistic Buddhism, which emphasizes humanism, charity, and other humanitarian practices that help improve social conditions.

New religious movements

There are many sects and organisations proclaiming a Buddhist identity and pursuit (fo or fu: "awakening", "enlightenment") that are not recognised as legitimate Buddhism by the

• Guanyin Buddhism [Awakening Teaching] (观音佛教 Guānyīn Fójiào) or Guanyin Church (观音会 Guānyīn Huì)^[80]
• True Buddha School
• Buddhism [Awakening Teaching] of the Lord of Heaven of Infinite Thriving of the Mountain of Longevity (寿山万隆天主佛教 Shòushān Wànlóng Tiānzhǔ Fójiào)
• Wulian Jingang Dadao ("Great Way of the Innumerable Attendants of Awakening")
• Hanmi Chinese esoteric Buddhism, Living Buddha Dechan Jueren

Holidays and festivals

Chinese Buddhists celebrate numerous religious festivals and holidays and these are the most widely attended and popular Chinese Buddhist events.^[81]

During religious festivals, Chinese people visit temples to take part in rituals, chanting, food, celebrations, parades, and to make offerings of prayers, incense, fruits, flowers, and donations. On such days, they may observe the moral precepts very strictly, as well as a full day's vegetarian diet. Some of the most important holidays celebrated by Chinese Buddhists include: Buddha's Birthday (on the eighth day of the fourth lunar month), Chinese New Year and the Lantern Festival (on the first and fifteenth days of the first lunar month), and the Ghost Festival (fifteenth day of the seventh lunar month).^[82]

List of Holidays

The following holiday dates given are based on the Chinese calendar, so that 8.4 means the Eighth day of the fourth month in Chinese calendar and so on.^[83]

• 8.12 — Enlightenment Day of
  Sakyamuni
  Buddha
• 1.1 — Birthday of Maitreya Buddha
• 9.1 — Birthday of Śakra, Lord of the Devas
• 8.2 — Renunciation Day of Śākyamuni Buddha
• 15.2 — Mahāparinirvāṇa Day of Śākyamuni Buddha
• 19.2 — Birthday of Bodhisattva
  Guan Yin
  )
• 21.2 — Birthday of Bodhisattva
  Samantabhadra
• 4.4 — Birthday of Bodhisattva
  Manjusri
• 8.4 — Birthday of Śākyamuni Buddha
• 15.4 — Vesak
• 13.5 — Birthday of Bodhisattva Sangharama (Qie Lan)
• 3.6 — Birthday of Skanda (Wei Tuo)
• 19.6 — Enlightenment Day of Bodhisattva Avalokiteśvara
• 13.7 — Birthday of Bodhisattva Mahāsthāmaprāpta
• 15.7 — Ullambana Festival Ghost Festival
• 24.7 — Birthday of Bodhisattva Nagarjuna
• 30.7 — Birthday of Bodhisattva
  Kṣitigarbha
• 22.8 — Birthday of Dīpaṃkara Buddha (an ancient buddha)
• 19.9 — Renunciation Day of Bodhisattva Avalokiteśvara
• 30.9 — Birthday of Bhaiṣajyaguru Buddha (Medicine Buddha)
• 5.10 — Anniversary of the death of Bodhidharma
• 17.11 — Birthday of Amitabha Buddha

See also

Part of a series on
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Notes

References

Citations

Sources

• Broughton, Jeffrey L. (1999), The Bodhidharma Anthology: The Earliest Records of Zen, Berkeley, CA: University of California Press,
  ISBN 978-0-520-21972-4
• Chen, Kenneth Kuan Sheng. Buddhism in China: A Historical Survey. Princeton, N.J., Princeton University Press, 1964.
• Dumoulin, Heinrich (2005), Zen Buddhism: A History, vol. 1: India and China, Bloomington, IN: World Wisdom,
  ISBN 978-0-941532-89-1
• Han Yu. Sources of Chinese Tradition. c. 800.
• Ebrey, Patricia Buckley (1999), The Cambridge Illustrated History of China (paperback), Cambridge, England:
  ISBN 978-0-521-66991-7
• Ebrey, Patricia; Walthall, Anne; Palais, James (2006), East Asia: A Cultural, Social, and Political History, Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company,
  ISBN 978-0-618-13384-0
• Hill, John E. (2009) Through the Jade Gate to Rome: A Study of the Silk Routes during the Later Han Dynasty, 1st to 2nd Centuries CE. John E. Hill. BookSurge, Charleston, South Carolina.
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• Lai, Hongyi Harry (2003), The Religious Revival in China. In: Copenhagen Journal of Asian Studies 18, archived from the original on 2013-07-22, retrieved 2013-03-29
• Laliberte, Andre (2011), Buddhist Revival under State Watch, in: Journal of Current Chinese Affairs, 40, 2,107-134, archived from the original on 2019-12-25, retrieved 2013-03-29
• Liebenthal, Walter. Chao Lun - The Treatises of Seng-Chao Hong Kong, China, Hong Kong University Press, 1968.
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• McRae, John (2003), Seeing Through Zen, The University Press Group Ltd.
• Mullin, Glenn H. The Fourteen Dalai Lamas: A Sacred Legacy of Reincarnations (2001) Clear Light Publishers.
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  JSTOR 602960

Further reading

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Chinese Buddhism

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History

• Nan Huai-Chin (1998), Basic Buddhism: Exploring Buddhism and Zen, Translated by J.C. Cleary, Red Wheel Weiser
• Nan Huai-Chin (1995), The Story of Chinese Zen, Translated by Thomas Cleary, Charles E. Tuttle Company
• Tansen Sen (2003), Buddhism, Diplomacy, and Trade: The realignment of Sino-Indian Relations, 600–1400, Association for Asian Studies & University of Hawaiʻi Press
• Shinko Mochizuki, Leo M. Pruden, Trans. (1999). Pure Land Buddhism in China: A Doctrinal History, Chapter 1: A General Survey. In: Pacific World Journal, Third Series, Number 1, 91–103. Archived from the original
• Shinko Mochizuki, Leo M. Pruden, Trans. (2001). Pure Land Buddhism in China: A Doctrinal History, Chapter 2: The Earliest Period; Chapter 3: Hui-yuan of Mt.Lu; and Chapter 4: The Translation of Texts-Spurious Scriptures. In: Pacific World Journal, Third Series, Number 3, 241–275. Archived from the original
• Shinko Mochizuki, Leo M. Pruden, Trans. (2002). Pure Land Buddhism in China: A Doctrinal History, Chapter Five: The Early Pure Land Faith: Southern China, and Chapter Six: The Early Pure Land Faith: Northern China. In: Pacific World Journal, Third Series, Number 4, 259–279. Archived from the original
• Shinko Mochizuki, Leo M. Pruden, Trans. (2000). Pure Land Buddhism in China: A Doctrinal History, Chapter 7: T'an-luan. In: Pacific World Journal, Third Series, Number 2, 149–165. Archived from the original

First Buddhist revival

• Pittman, Don Alvin (2001), Toward a Modern Chinese Buddhism: Taixu's Reforms, University of Hawaii Press
• Daoru, Wei (n.d.), Buddhism in China and Modern Society: An Introduction Centering Around the Teachings of Taixu and Yinshun (PDF), archived from the original (PDF) on April 2, 2013
• Lancashire, Douglas (n.d.), Buddhism in Modern China (PDF)

Contemporary Chinese Buddhism

• Chau, Adam Yuet (2010), Religion in Contemporary China: Revitalization and Innovation, Taylor & Francis
• Miller, James (2006), Chinese Religions in Contemporary Societies, ABC-CLIO
• Baumer, Christoph (2011), China's Holy Mountain: An Illustrated Journey into the Heart of Buddhism, London: I.B.Tauris,
  ISBN 978-1-84885-700-1
• Master Sheng Yen (2007), Orthodox Chinese Buddhism, Translated by Douglas Gildow and Otto Chang, North Atlantic Books
• Munro, Robin; Spiegel, Mickey (1994). Detained in China and Tibet: A Directory of Political and Religious Prisoners. Human Rights Watch.
  ISBN 978-1-56432-105-3
  .
  • List first published in: "Appendix: Sects and Societies Recently or Currently Active in the PRC". Chinese Sociology & Anthropology. 21 (4): 103–104. 1989.
    doi:10.2753/CSA0009-46252104102
    .