Buddhist influences on Advaita Vedanta
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Advaita Vedanta (
Buddhist influences
Advaita Vedānta and various other schools of Hindu philosophy share terminology and numerous doctrines with Mahayana Buddhism.[6][7] The similarities between Advaita and Buddhism have attracted Indian and Western scholars attention.[1][8] and have also been criticised by concurring schools. Scholarly views have historically and in modern times ranged from "Advaita and Buddhism are very different", to "Advaita and Buddhism absolutely coincide in their main tenets", to "after purifying Buddhism and Advaita of accidental or historically conditioned accretions, both systems can be safely regarded as an expression of one and the same eternal absolute truth."[9]
Similarities
Advaita Vedānta and various other schools of Hindu philosophy share numerous terminology, doctrines and dialectical techniques with Buddhism.
Both traditions hold that "the
Mahayana influences
The influence of
In any event a close relationship between the Mahayana schools and Vedanta did exist with the latter borrowing some of the dialectical techniques, if not the specific doctrines, of the former much like early Buddhism adopted Upanishadic terminology and borrowed its doctrines to Buddhist goals; both used pre-existing concepts and ideas to convey new meanings.[11]
Von Glasenap states that there was a mutual influence between Vedanta and Buddhism.[21] Dasgupta and Mohanta suggest that Buddhism and Shankara's Advaita Vedānta represent "different phases of development of the same non-dualistic metaphysics from the Upanishadic period to the time of Sankara."[22][note 2]
The influence of
Gauḍapāda
According to Sarma, "to mistake him [Gauḍapāda] to be a hidden or open Buddhist is absurd".[26] The doctrines of Gauḍapāda and Buddhism are totally opposed, states Murti:[27]
We have been talking of borrowing, influence and relationship in rather general terms. It is necessary to define the possible nature of the borrowing, granting that it did take place [...] The Vedantins stake everything on the
Nairatmya standpoint of Buddhism and its total opposition to the Atman (Self, substance, the permanent and universal) in any form.[28]
Advaitins have traditionally challenged the Buddhist influence thesis.[29] The influence of Buddhist doctrines on
The influence of Mahayana on Advaita Vedanta, states Deutsch, goes back at least to Gauḍapāda, where he "clearly draws from Buddhist philosophical sources for many of his arguments and distinctions and even for the forms and imagery in which these arguments are cast much like how Buddhists had borrowed Vedic terminology.[11]
According to Plott, the influence of Buddhism on Gauḍapāda is undeniable and to be expected.[31] Gauḍapāda, in his Karikas text, uses the leading concepts and wording of Mahayana Buddhist school but, states John Plott, he reformulated them to the Upanishadic themes.[31] Yet, according to Plott, this influence is to be expected:
We must emphasize again that generally throughout the Gupta Dynasty, and even more so after its decline, there developed such a high degree of syncretism and such toleration of all points of view that Mahayana Buddhism had been Hinduized almost as much as Hinduism had been Buddhaized.[31]
According to Mahadevan, Gauḍapāda adopted Buddhist terminology and borrowed its doctrines to his Vedantic goals, much like early Buddhism adopted Upanishadic terminology and borrowed its doctrines to Buddhist goals; both used pre-existing concepts and ideas to convey new meanings.
Michael Comans states Gauḍapāda, an early Vedantin, utilised some arguments and reasoning from
Gauḍapāda, states Raju, "wove Buddhist doctrines into a philosophy of the Māṇḍukya Upanisad, which was further developed by Shankara".
Shankara
Given the principal role attributed to Shankara in Advaita tradition, his works have been examined by scholars for similarities with Buddhism.
Similarly, there are many points of contact between Buddhism's
Shankara and his followers borrowed much of their dialectic form of criticism from the Buddhists. His
Mudgal additionally states that the Upanishadic and Buddhist currents of thought "developed separately and independently, opposed to one another, as the orthodox and heterodox, the thesis and antithesis, and a synthesis was attempted by the Advaitin Shankara".[47]
According to Daniel Ingalls, the Japanese Buddhist scholarship has argued that Adi Shankara did not understand Buddhism.[8]
Criticisms of concurring Hindu schools
Some Hindu scholars criticized Advaita for its Maya and non-theistic doctrinal similarities with Buddhism.
Differences from Buddhism
Atman and anatta
The Advaita Vedānta tradition has historically rejected accusations of crypto-Buddhism highlighting their respective views on Atman, Anatta and Brahman.[7]
Advaita Vedānta holds the premise, "Soul exists, and Soul (or self, Atman) is a self evident truth". Buddhism, in contrast, holds the premise, "Atman does not exist, and An-atman (or Anatta, non-self)[49] is self evident".[50][51] Chakravarthi Ram-Prasad gives a more nuanced view, stating that the Advaitins "assert a stable subjectivity, or a unity of consciousness through all the specific states of indivuated consciousness, but not an individual subject of consciousness [...] the Advaitins split immanent reflexivity from 'mineness'."[52]
In Buddhism,
The Upanishadic inquiry fails to find an empirical correlate of the assumed
Yet, some Buddhist texts chronologically placed in the 1st millennium of common era, such as the Mahayana tradition's Tathāgatagarbha sūtras suggest self-like concepts, variously called Tathagatagarbha or
Epistemology
The epistemological foundations of Buddhism and Advaita Vedānta are different. Buddhism accepts two valid means to reliable and correct knowledge – perception and inference, while Advaita Vedānta accepts six (described elsewhere in this article).[65][66][67] However, some Buddhists in history, have argued that Buddhist scriptures are a reliable source of spiritual knowledge, corresponding to Advaita's Śabda pramana, however Buddhists have treated their scriptures as a form of inference method.[68]
Ontology
Advaita Vedānta posits a substance ontology, an ontology which holds that underlying the change and impermanence of empirical reality is an unchanging and permanent absolute reality, like an eternal substance it calls Atman-Brahman.[69] In its substance ontology, as like other philosophies, there exist a universal, particulars and specific properties and it is the interaction of particulars that create events and processes.[70]
In contrast, Buddhism posits a process ontology, also called as "event ontology".[71][70] According to the Buddhist thought, particularly after the rise of ancient Mahayana Buddhism scholarship, there is neither empirical nor absolute permanent reality and ontology can be explained as a process.[71][72][note 7] There is a system of relations and interdependent phenomena (pratitya samutpada) in Buddhist ontology, but no stable persistent identities, no eternal universals nor particulars. Thought and memories are mental constructions and fluid processes without a real observer, personal agency or cognizer in Buddhism. In contrast, in Advaita Vedānta, like other schools of Hinduism, the concept of self (atman) is the real on-looker, personal agent and cognizer.[74]
The Pali Abdhidhamma and Theravada Buddhism considered all existence as dhamma, and left the ontological questions about reality and the nature of dhamma unexplained.[71]
According to Renard, Advaita's theory of three levels of reality is built on the two levels of reality found in the Madhyamika.[75]
Shankara on Buddhism
A central concern for Shankara, in his objections against Buddhism, is what he perceives as nihilism of the Buddhists.[76] Shankara states that there "must be something beyond cognition, namely a cognizer,"[77] which he asserts is the self-evident Atman or witness.[78] Buddhism, according to Shankara, denies the cognizer. He also considers the notion of Brahman as pure knowledge and "the quintessence of positive reality."[76]
The teachings in Brahma Sutras, states Shankara, differ from both the
Buddhist criticisms
A few Buddhist scholars made the opposite criticism in the medieval era toward their Buddhist opponents. In the sixth century AD, for example, the Mahayana Buddhist scholar
Notes
- Atman is at one with the Universal Atman, and that the former, if purified from dross, is being absorbed by the latter, "just as clear water poured into clear water becomes one with it, indistinguishably."[17]
- ^ This development did not end with Advaita Vedanta, but continued in Tantrism and various schools of Shaivism. Non-dual Kashmir Shaivism, for example, was influenced by, and took over doctrines from, several orthodox and heterodox Indian religious and philosophical traditions.[23] These include Vedanta, Samkhya, Patanjali Yoga and Nyayas, and various Buddhist schools, including Yogacara and Madhyamika,[23] but also Tantra and the Nath-tradition.[24]
- ^ It is often used interchangeably with the term citta-mātra, but they have different meanings. The standard translation of both terms is "consciousness-only" or "mind-only." Several modern researchers object this translation, and the accompanying label of "absolute idealism" or "idealistic monism".[34] A better translation for vijñapti-mātra is representation-only.[35]
- ^ An means "not", or "non"; utpāda means "genesis", "coming forth", "birth"[web 1] Taken together anutpāda means "having no origin", "not coming into existence", "not taking effect", "non-production".[web 2]
- ^ Ninian Smart, a historian of religion, quotes Mudgal view that "the differences between Shankara and Mahayana doctrines are largely a matter of emphasis and background, rather than essence".[44] Ninian Smart is a proponent of the so-called "common core thesis", which states that all forms of mysticism share a common core. See also [web 3] and [web 4]
- ^ Self-luminosity; see Deutsch 1973, p. 48; Dasgupta 1975, pp. 148–149; Indich 2000, pp. 24, 28; Menon 2012; Ganeri 2019, p. 103; Murti 1983, p. 339; Isaeva 1993, p. 102.
For the translation and meaning of svayam prakāśa:- svayam: "himself, autonomous, in person" (Sanskrit Dictionary for Spoken Sanskrit, svayam)
- prakāśa: "manifestation," literally "light" or "illumination"; "the capacity to disclose, present, or make manifest" (Fasching 2021 note 1, referring to "MacKenzie 2017, 335; cf. also Ram-Prasad 2007, 53")
- "self-luminous" (Ganeri 2019; Menon 2012)
- "self-revealing" (Dasgupta 1975))
- "self-manifesting" (Chatterjea 2003, p. 1)
- "Self-aware" (Wood 1992, p. 102)
- "Immediate" (Murti 1983, p. 339)
- Menezes 2017, p. 198: "Self-luminosity (svayam prakāśa) means self is pure awareness by nature"; idem Ganeri 2019: "self is pure awareness by nature."
- Murti 1983, p. 339: "a foundational consciousness [...] to which everything is presented, but is itself no presentation, that which knows all, but is itself no object."
- Yogacara as reactions against developments toward substance ontology in Buddhism.[73]
- ^ Nicholson: "a Hīnayāna interlocutor accuses the Mahāyāna Buddhist of being a crypto-Vedāntin, paralleling later Vedāntins who accuse the Advaita Vedānta of crypto-Buddhism."[85]
References
- ^ a b c d e Biderman 1978, pp. 405–413.
- ^ N.V. Isaeva (1993), Shankara and Indian Philosophy, SUNY Press, pages 12-14
- ^ Sharma 2007, p. 6.
- ^ Deutsch 1988, p. 4.
- ^ Lopez 2001, p. 239.
- ^ a b c d Comans 2000, pp. 88–93.
- ^ a b Isaeva 1993, pp. 60, 145–154.
- ^ a b Ingalls 1954, pp. 291–306
- ^ Isaeva 1993, pp. 12–14, 145–154.
- ^ a b c Isaeva 1993, p. 172.
- ^ a b c Deutsch & Dalvi 2004, pp. 126, 157.
- ^ Murti 1983, p. 339.
- ^ Dasgupta & Mohanta 1998, pp. 351–352.
- ^ Helmuth Von Glasenapp (1995), Vedanta & Buddhism: A comparative study, Buddhist Publication Society, pp. 2–3
- ^ Dasgupta & Mohanta 1998, p. 354.
- ^ David Loy (1982), Enlightenment in Buddhism and Advaita Vedanta, International Philosophical Quarterly, Volume 22, Issue 1, pp. 65–74
- ^ Helmuth Von Glasenapp (1995), Vedanta & Buddhism: A comparative study, Buddhist Publication Society, pp. 1–2
- ^ a b c d e f Whaling 1979, pp. 1–42.
- ^ Grimes 1998, pp. 684–686.
- ^ Sharma 2000, pp. 60–63.
- ^ Helmuth Von Glasenapp (1995), Vedanta & Buddhism: A comparative study, Buddhist Publication Society, pages 2-3, Quote: "Vedanta and Buddhism have lived side by side for such a long time that obviously they must have influenced each other. The strong predilection of the Indian mind for a doctrine of universal unity has led the representatives of Mahayana to conceive Samsara and Nirvana as two aspects of the same and single true reality; for Nagarjuna the empirical world is a mere appearance, as all dharmas, manifest in it, are perishable and conditioned by other dharmas, without having any independent existence of their own. Only the indefinable "Voidness" (Sunyata) to be grasped in meditation, and realized in Nirvana, has true reality [in Buddhism]".
- ^ Dasgupta & Mohanta 1998, p. 362.
- ^ a b Muller-Ortega 2010, p. 25.
- ^ Muller-Ortega 2010, p. 26.
- ^ Kalupahana 1994, p. 206.
- ^ Sarma 2007, pp. 145–147.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-415-46118-4, pp. 114–115
- ISBN 978-0-415-46118-4, p. 116
- ^ a b c d Potter 1981, p. 105.
- ^ Comans 2000, p. 2.
- ^ a b c d e Plott 2000, pp. 285–288.
- ^ Potter 1981, p. 81.
- ^ a b Raju 1992, p. 177.
- ^ Kochumuttom 1999, p. 1.
- ^ Kochumuttom 1999, p. 5.
- ^ Sarma 2007, pp. 126, 143–144.
- ^ Bhattacharya 1943, p. 49.
- ^ Renard 2010, p. 157.
- ^ Comans 2000, pp. 35–36.
- ^ Raju 1992, pp. 177–178.
- ^ Gaudapada, Devanathan Jagannathan, University of Toronto, IEP
- ^ Dasgupta & Mohanta 1998, pp. 349–352.
- ^ Mudgal, S.G. (1975), Advaita of Shankara: A Reappraisal, New Delhi: Motilal Banarasidass, p. 4
- ^ Ninian Smart (1992), Doctrine and Argument in Indian Philosophy. Brill, page 104
- ^ Isaeva 1993, p. 174.
- ^ Dasgupta 1997, p. 494.
- ^ S Mudgal (1975), Advaita of Shankara: A Reappraisal, Motilal Banarasidass, page 175
- ISBN 978-0887060397, pp. 120–123
- ^ Anatta, Encyclopædia Britannica (2013), Quote: "Anatta in Buddhism, the doctrine that there is in humans no permanent, underlying soul. The concept of anatta, or anatman, is a departure from the Hindu belief in atman ("the self")."
- ^ ISBN 978-8120801585, p. 63, Quote: "The Buddhist schools reject any Ātman concept. As we have already observed, this is the basic and ineradicable distinction between Hinduism and Buddhism".
- ISBN 978-0824815981, p. 171
- ^ Chakravarthi Ram-Prasad (2013), Situating the Elusive Self of Advaita Vedanta. In: Mark Siderits, Evan Thompson, Dan Zahavi (eds.), Self, No Self?: Perspectives from Analytical, Phenomenological, and Indian Traditions, Oxgord University Press, p. 235
- ^ ISBN 978-0815336112, p. 33, Quote: "The dispute with Buddhists, who do not accept an imperishable Self, gives the Atman schools [Vedanta, Kashmir Shaivism] a chance to articulate the intellectual aspects of their way to meditative liberation".
- ISBN 978-0823922406, p. 14
- ^ David Loy (1982), Enlightenment in Buddhism and Advaita Vedanta: Are Nirvana and Moksha the Same?, International Philosophical Quarterly, Volume 23, Issue 1, pp. 65–74
- ^ a b Jayatilleke 1963, p. 39.
- ^ Mackenzie 2012.
- ISBN 978-1-134-25056-1.
- ISBN 978-0-7914-0357-0.
- ISBN 978-1-134-25056-1.
- ISBN 978-0-7914-0357-0.
- ISBN 978-1-134-25056-1.
(...) it refers to the Buddha using the term "Self" in order to win over non-Buddhist ascetics.
- ]
- ISBN 978-0-86171-157-4.
- ^ Grimes 1996, p. 238.
- .
- ISBN 978-0521126274, p. 54
- ISBN 978-8120816466, pp. xix–xx
- ^ Puligandla 1997, pp. 49–50, 60–62.
- ^ ISBN 978-1-84706-449-3.
- ^ ISBN 0-415-20701-0.
- ^ Puligandla 1997, pp. 40–50, 60–62, 97.
- ^ Kalupahana 1994.
- ISBN 978-1-84706-449-3.
- ^ Renard 2010, p. 130.
- ^ a b c Ingalls 1954, p. 302.
- ^ Ingalls 1954, p. 304.
- ^ Ingalls 1954, pp. 301–305.
- ^ Ingalls 1954.
- ^ Ingalls 1954, pp. 299–301, 303–304.
- ^ Ingalls 1954, pp. 302–303.
- ^ Ingalls 1954, p. 303.
- ^ Nicholson 2010, p. 152.
- ISBN 9780674032743.
- ^ a b Nicholson 2010, pp. 152–153.
- ^ King 1995, p. 183.
- ^ ISBN 978-1-55939-778-0.
- ^ ISBN 978-1-55939-997-5.
- ISBN 978-81-246-0519-6.
He also charges that Candrakirti was a crypto-Vedantist, (...)
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