Burmese cuisine
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Burmese cuisine encompasses the diverse regional culinary traditions of Myanmar, which have developed through longstanding agricultural practices, centuries of sociopolitical and economic change, and cross-cultural contact and trade with neighboring countries at the confluence of South Asia, Southeast Asia, and East Asia, including the modern-day nations of India, China, and Thailand.[1] Mohinga, a savory fish soup with lemongrass and banana leaves are eaten for breakfast with rice noodles, lunch is rice accompanied with small side dishes of vegetables, a small soup and a meat or fish dish. Dinner is consumed in a similar fashion to lunch. Burmese stews or curries are not Indian curries but milder with reliance on the trio of onion garlic and ginger to create savory gravies. Burmese food does not rely heavily on coconut such as in Thai cuisine. Burmese however enjoy spicy food with addition of chilis mixed into the dishes.
Burmese cuisine is typified by a wide-ranging array of dishes, including traditional stews Burmese curries, Burmese salads, accompanied by soups and a medley of vegetables that are traditionally eaten with white rice.[2] Burmese cuisine also features Indian breads as well as noodles in many forms, such as fried, in soups, or as most popularly consumed as salads. Street food and snack culture has also nurtured the profuse variety of traditional Burmese fritters and modern savory and sweet snacks labeled under the umbrella of mont.
The contrasting flavor profile of Burmese cuisine is broadly captured in the phrase chin ngan sat (ချဉ်ငံစပ်), which literally means "sour, salty, and spicy."[3] A popular Burmese rhyme — "of all the fruit, the mango's the best; of all the meat, the pork's the best; and of all the vegetables, lahpet's (tea leaves are) the best" — sums up the traditional favourites.[Note 1]
History
Rice is the principal staple in Burmese cuisine, reflecting several millennia of rice cultivation, which first emerged in the country's Chindwin, Ayeyarwady, and Thanlwin river valleys between 11,000 and 5000 BCE.[4] By 3000 BCE, irrigated rice cultivation flourished in the region, paralleled by the domestication of cattle and pigs by inhabitants.[4]
In addition to rice, tea originated in the borderlands separating Myanmar from China, precipitating a longstanding tradition of tea consumption and the development of pickled tea known as laphet, which continues to play a pivotal role in Burmese ritual culture.[5][6] This longstanding history is reflected in the Burmese language, which is among the few world languages whose word for "tea" is not etymologically traced back to the Chinese word for "tea" (see etymology of tea).[6]
Agrarian settlements were settled by ancestors of Myanmar's modern-day ethnolinguistic groups. From these settlements emerged a succession of Burmese, Mon, Shan, Rakhine-speaking kingdoms and tributary states that now make up contemporary Myanmar. Paddy rice cultivation remains synonymous with the predominantly
Burmese cuisine has been significantly enriched by contact and trade with neighboring kingdoms and countries well into modern times. The Columbian exchange in the 15th and 16th centuries introduced key ingredients into the Burmese culinary repertoire, including tomatoes, chili peppers, peanuts, and potatoes.[8] A series of Burmese–Siamese wars between the 16th to 19th centuries resulted in the emergence of Thai-inspired delicacies, including khanon dok, shwe yin aye, mont let hsaung, and Yodaya mont di.[9]
While record-keeping of pre-colonial culinary traditions is scant, food was and remains deeply intertwined with religious life, especially among Buddhist communities, exemplified in the giving of food alms (
British rule in Burma between the 19th and 20th centuries led to the establishment of Burmese Indian and Sino-Burmese communities that introduced novel cooking techniques, ingredients, food vocabulary, and fusion dishes that are now considered integral parts of Burmese cuisine.[13] These range from Indian breads such as naan and paratha to Chinese stir frying techniques and ingredients like tofu and soy sauce.
Etiquette and customs
Dining
Traditionally, the Burmese eat meals from plates on a low table or
Out of respect, the eldest diners are always served first before the rest join in; even when the elders are absent, the first morsel of rice from the pot is scooped and put aside as an act of respect to one's parents, a custom known as u cha (ဦးချ, lit. 'first serve').[16]
The Burmese traditionally eat with their right hand, forming the rice into a small ball with only the fingertips and mixing this with various morsels before popping it into their mouths.[16] Chopsticks and Chinese-style spoons are used for noodle dishes, although noodle salads are more likely to be eaten with just a spoon. Western-style utensils, especially forks and knives, have gained currency in recent years.
In traditional Burmese eateries, green tea and numerous side dishes are served complimentary alongside the main dishes and rice.[17][18]
Religious practices
The country's diverse religious makeup influences its cuisine, as Buddhists and Hindus traditionally avoid
Beef taboo
The beef taboo is fairly widespread in Myanmar, particularly in the Buddhist community. In Myanmar, beef is typically obtained from cattle that are slaughtered at the end of their working lives (16 years of age) or from sick animals.
During the country's last dynasty, the
On 29 August 1961, the
Food theories
In traditional Burmese medicine, foods are divided into two classes: heating (အပူစာ, apu za) or cooling (အအေးစာ, a-aye za), based on their effects on one's body system, similar to the Chinese classification of food.[16] Examples of heating foods include chicken, bitter melon, durian, mango, chocolate, and ice cream. Examples of cooling foods include pork, eggplant, dairy products, cucumbers, and radish.
The Burmese also hold several taboos and superstitions regarding consumption during various occasions in one's life, especially pregnancy. For instance, pregnant women are not supposed to eat chili, due to the belief that it causes children to have sparse scalp hairs.[16]
Cooking techniques
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Burmese dishes are not cooked with precise recipes. The use and portion of ingredients used may vary, but the precision of timing is of utmost importance.[16][10] Burmese dishes may be stewed, boiled, fried, roasted, steamed, baked or grilled, or any combination of the said techniques.[10] Burmese curries use only a handful of spices (in comparison to Indian ones) and use more fresh garlic and ginger.[10]
Regional cuisines
Broadly speaking, Burmese cuisine is divided between the culinary traditions of Upper Myanmar, which is inland and landlocked; and Lower Myanmar, which is surrounded by numerous rivers, river deltas, and the Andaman Sea.[28] Variations between regional cuisines are largely driven by the availability of fresh ingredients. Myanmar's long coastline has provided an abundant source of fresh seafood, which is particularly associated with Rakhine cuisine.[29] Southern Myanmar, particularly the area around Mawlamyaing, is known for its cuisine, as the Burmese proverb goes: "Mandalay for eloquence, Yangon for boasting, Mawlamyaing for food."[30][Note 2]
Cuisine in Lower Myanmar, including Yangon and Mawlamyaing, makes extensive use of fish and seafood-based products like fish sauce and ngapi (fermented seafood).[28] The cuisine in Upper Myanmar, including the Bamar heartland (Mandalay, Magway, and Sagaing Regions), Shan State, and Kachin States, tends to use more meat, poultry, pulses and beans.[28] The level of spices and use of fresh herbs varies depending on the region; Kachin and Shan curries will often use more fresh herbs.[2]
Fusion Chettiar (ချစ်တီးကုလား) cuisine, originating from Southern Indian cuisine, is also popular in cities.
Dishes and ingredients
Burmese cuisine incorporates numerous local ingredients that are less frequently used in other Southeast Asian cuisines, among them sour roselle leaves, astringent pennywort leaves, goat, mutton, and dried beans and lentils.[31]
Because a standardised system of
Preserved foods
Shan cuisine traditionally uses fermented beans called pè ngapi (ပဲငါးပိ; lit. 'bean ngapi'), in lieu of ngapi, to impart umami.[2] Dried bean ngapi chips (ပဲပုပ်; lit. 'spoiled beans') are used as condiments for various Shan dishes.[34]
Pon ye gyi (ပုံးရည်ကြီး), a thick salty black paste made from fermented beans, is popular in the Bamar heartland. It is used in cooking, especially with pork, and as a salad with peanut oil, chopped onions and red chili. Bagan is an important pon ye gyi producer.[35]
Burmese cuisine also features a wide variety of pickled vegetables and fruits that are preserved in oil and spices, or in brine and rice wine.[3] The former, called thanat (သနပ်), are similar to South Asian pickles, including mango pickle. The latter are called chinbat (ချဉ်ဖတ်), and include pickles like mohnyin gyin.
Rice
The most common staple in Myanmar is steamed rice, called htamin (ထမင်း). Burmese varieties of rice are typically starchier than jasmine or basmati rice.[12] Fragrant, aromatic varieties of white rice, including paw hsan hmwe (ပေါ်ဆန်းမွှေး), are popular. Lower-amylose varieties of glutinous rice, which are called kauk hnyin (ကောက်ညှင်း), also feature in Burmese cuisine, including a purple variety called ngacheik (ငချိပ်). Consumers in the northern highlands (e.g., Shan State) prefer stickier, lower-amylose varieties like kauk hnyin and kauk sei, while consumers in lower delta regions preferring higher-amylose varieties like kauk chaw and kauk kyan.[36] Lower-amylose varieties of rice are commonly used in traditional Burmese snacks called mont.[36] While rice is traditionally eaten plain, flavored versions like buttered rice and coconut rice are commonplace festive staples.[37]
- Htamin gyaw (ထမင်းကြော် [tʰəmɪ́ɴ dʒɔ̀]) – fried rice with boiled peas, sometimes with meat, sausage, and eggs.[38]
- San byok (ဆန်ပြုတ် [sʰàɴbjoʊʔ]) – rice congee with fish, chicken or duck often fed to invalids.
- Danbauk (ဒံပေါက် [dàɴbaʊʔ], from Persian dum pukht) – Burmese-style biryani with either chicken or mutton served with mango pickle, a fresh salad of sliced onions, julienned cabbage, sliced cucumbers, fermented limes and lemons, fried dried chilies, and soup[39][40]
- Chinese chive roots, fried whole dried chili, grilled dried fermented bean cakes (pé bok) and fried dried tofu (tohu gyauk kyaw) on the side[41]
- Thingyan rice (သင်္ကြန်ထမင်း [ðədʒàɴ tʰəmɪ́ɴ]) – fully boiled rice in candle-smelt water served with pickled marian plums[42]
Noodles
Burmese cuisine uses a wide variety of noodles, which are prepared in soups, salads, or other dry noodle dishes and typically eaten outside of lunch, or as a snack.[2] Fresh, thin rice noodles called mont bat (မုန့်ဖတ်) or mont di (မုန့်တီ), are similar to Thai khanom chin, and feature in Myanmar's national dish, mohinga. Burmese cuisine also has a category of rice noodles of varying sizes and shapes called nan, including nangyi (နန်းကြီး), thick udon-like noodles; nanlat (နန်းလတ်), medium-sized rice noodles; nanthe (နန်းသေး), thinner rice noodles; and nanbya (နန်းပြား), flat rice noodles.[43] Cellophane noodles, called kyazan (ကြာဆံ, lit. 'lotus thread') and wheat-based noodles called khauk swe (ခေါက်ဆွဲ),[43] are often used in salads, soups, and stir-fries.[2]
Dry or fried noodle dishes include:
- pad thai[44]
- mustard greens
- Mont di – an extremely popular and economical fast-food dish where rice vermicelli are either eaten with some condiments and soup prepared from ngapi, or as a salad with powdered fish and some condiments.
- Panthay khao swè (ပန်းသေးခေါက်ဆွဲ Panthay community, a group of Burmese Chinese Muslims.[45]
- Sigyet khauk swè (ဆီချက်ခေါက်ဆွဲ [sʰìdʑɛʔ kʰaʊʔ sʰwɛ́]) – wheat noodles with duck or pork, fried garlic oil, soy sauce and chopped spring onions. The dish originated from with the Sino-Burmese community[46]
Noodle soups include:
- lemon grass and tender banana stem cores, served with boiled eggs, fried fishcake and Burmese fritters[47]
- Ohn-no khauk swè (အုန်းနို့ခေါက်ဆွဲ [ʔóʊɴno̰ kʰaʊʔsʰwɛ́]) – curried chicken and wheat noodles in a coconut milk broth. It is comparable to Malaysian laksa and Northern Thai khao soi[48]
- Kyay oh (ကြေးအိုး [tʃé ʔó]) – rice noodles in a broth of pork offal and egg, traditionally served in copper pot[49]
- Kawyei khao swè (ကော်ရည်ခေါက်ဆွဲ [kɔ̀ jè kʰaʊʔ sʰwɛ́]) – noodles and duck (or pork) curried with five-spice powder in broth with eggs, comparable to Singaporean/Malaysian lor mee[50]
- Mi swan (မြူစွမ် [mjù swàɴ]) – thin wheat noodles, known as misua in Singapore and Malaysia. It is a popular option for invalids, usually with chicken broth.
- Shan khauk swé (ရှမ်းခေါက်ဆွဲ [ʃáɴ kʰaʊʔsʰwɛ́]) – rice noodles with chicken or minced pork, onions, garlic, tomatoes, chili, crushed roasted peanuts, young snowpea vine, served with tofu fritters, and pickled mustard greens[51]
Salads
Burmese salads (အသုပ်; transliterated athoke or athouk) are a diverse category of indigenous salads in Burmese cuisine. Burmese salads are made of cooked and raw ingredients that are mixed by hand to combine and balance a wide-ranging array of flavors and textures.[2] Burmese salads are eaten as standalone snacks, as side dishes paired with Burmese curries, and as entrees.[3]
- Lahpet thoke (လက်ဖက်သုပ် [ləpʰɛʔ ðoʊʔ]) – a salad of pickled tea leaves with fried peas, peanuts and garlic, toasted sesame, fresh garlic, tomato, green chili, crushed dried shrimps, preserved ginger and dressed with peanut oil, fish sauce and lime[3]
- Gyin thoke (ချင်းသုပ် [dʒɪ́ɰ̃ ðoʊʔ]) – a salad of pickled ginger with sesame seeds[3]
- Khauk swè thoke (ခေါက်ဆွဲသုပ် [kʰaʊʔsʰwɛ́ ðoʊʔ]) – wheat noodle salad with dried shrimps, shredded cabbage and carrots, dressed with fried peanut oil, fish sauce and lime
- Let thoke son (လက်သုပ်စုံ ogonorisea moss and often wheat noodles
- Nan gyi thoke (နန်းကြီးသုပ် [náɰ̃dʒí ðoʊʔ]) or Mandalay mont di, thick rice noodle salad with chickpea flour, chicken, fish cake, onions, coriander, spring onions, crushed dried chilli, dressed with fried crispy onion oil, fish sauce and lime[52]
- Samusa thoke (စမူဆာသုပ် [səmùsʰà ðoʊʔ]) – samosa salad with onions, cabbage, fresh mint, potato curry, masala, chili powder, salt and lime[53]
- Kya zan thoke – glass vermicelli salad with boiled prawn julienne and mashed curried duck eggs and potatoes
Curries
Burmese curry refers to a diverse array of dishes in Burmese cuisine that consist of protein or vegetables simmered or stewed in an base of aromatics.[2] Burmese curries generally differ from other Southeast Asian curries (e.g., Thai curry) in that Burmese curries make use of dried spices, in addition to fresh herbs and aromatics, and are often milder.[54] The most common variety of curry is called sibyan (ဆီပြန်; lit. 'oil returns'), which is typified by a layer of oil that separates from the gravy and meat after cooked.[28] Pork, chicken, goat, shrimp, and fish are commonly prepared in Burmese curries.
- Pork sibyan (ဝက်သားဆီပြန်) – classic Burmese curry with fatty cuts of pork[55]
- Chicken sibyan (ကြက်သားဆီပြန်) – the classic Burmese curry, served with a thick gravy of aromatics[38][3]
- Bachelor's chicken curry (ကြက်ကာလသားချက်) – a red and watery chicken curry cooked with calabash[56][38]
- Goat hnat (ဆိတ်သားနှပ်) – a braised goat curry spiced with masala, cinnamon sticks, bay leaf, and cloves[57]
- Nga thalaut paung (ငါးသလောက်ပေါင်း [ŋəθəlaʊʔbáʊɴ]) – a curry of hilsa fish and tomatoes, which is slowly simmered to melt the fish bones[58]
- Egg curry (ဘဲဥချဥ်ရည်ဟင်း) – a sour curry made with hardboiled duck or chicken eggs, cooked in tamarind paste and mashed tomatoes[3]
Soups
In Burmese cuisine, soups typically accompany meals featuring both rice and noodles, and are paired accordingly to balance contrasting flavors. Lightly flavored soups, called hin gyo (ဟင်းချို) are served with saltier dishes, while sour soups, called chinyay hin (ချဉ်ရည်ဟင်း), are paired with rich, fatty Burmese curries.[3]
Thizon chinyay (သီးစုံချဉ်ရည်
Other grains and breads
Other dishes include:
- Burmese tofu (ရှမ်းတို့ဟူး [ʃáɴ tòhú]) – a tofu of Shan origin made from chickpea flour, eaten as fritters, in a salad, or in porridge forms
- A sein kyaw (အစိမ်းကြော် [ʔəséɪɴdʒɔ̀]) – cabbage, cauliflower, carrot, green beans, baby corn, corn flour or tapioca starch, tomatoes, squid sauce[62]
- Ngapi daung (ငါးပိထောင်း) – a spicy Rakhine-style condiment made from pounded ngapi and green chili
- Nga baung htoke (ငါးပေါင်းထုပ် [ŋəbáʊɴ doʊʔ]) – a Mon-style steamed parcel of mixed vegetables and prawns, wrapped in morinda and banana leaves[63]
- Wet tha chin (ဝက်သားချဉ် [wɛʔ θə dʑɪ̀ɴ]) – Shan-style preserved minced pork in rice[64]
Snacks
Burmese cuisine has a wide variety of traditional snacks called mont, ranging from sweet desserts to savory food items that are steamed, baked, fried, deep-fried, or boiled. Traditional Burmese fritters, consisting of vegetables or seafood that have been battered and deep-fried, are also eaten as snacks or as toppings.[65]
Savory snacks include:
- Hpet htok (lit. 'leaf wrap', ဖက်ထုပ် [pʰɛʔtʰoʊʔ]) – meat, pastry paper, ginger, garlic, pepper powder, and salt. Usually served with soup or noodles.
- Samusa (စမူဆာ [səmùzà]) – Burmese-style samosa with mutton and onions served with fresh mint, green chilli, onions and lime
- Burmese pork offal skewers (ဝက်သား တုတ်ထိုး [wɛʔθá doʊʔtʰó]) – pork offal cooked in light soy sauce, and eaten with raw ginger and chili sauce.
- Htamane (ထမနဲ [tʰəmənɛ́]) – dessert made from glutinous rice, shredded coconuts and peanuts
Sweet snacks include:
- Mont let hsaung (မုန့်လက်ဆောင်း [mo̰ʊɴlɛʔsʰáʊɴ]) – tapioca or rice noodles, glutinous rice, grated coconut and toasted sesame with jaggery syrup in coconut milk[66]
- Sanwin makin (ဆနွင်းမကင်း [sʰà.nwɪ́ɴ məgɪ́ɴ]) – semolina cake with raisins, walnuts and poppy seeds[3]
- Shwe yin aye (ရွှေရင်အေး [ʃwè jɪ̀ɴ ʔé]) – agar jelly, tapioca and sago in coconut milk
- halwa
- Hpaluda (ဖာလူဒါ [pʰàlùdà]) – rose water, milk, coconut jelly, coconut shavings, sometimes served with egg custard and ice cream, similar to Indian falooda[3]
- Ngapyaw baung (ငှက်ပျောပေါင်း) – A Mon-style dessert of bananas stewed in milk and coconut, and garnished with black sesame[68]
- Saw hlaing mont (စောလှိုင်မုန့်) – a Rakhine-style baked sweet, made from millet, raisins, coconut and butter
Fruits and fruit preserves
Myanmar has a wide range of fruits, mostly of tropical origin. Fruit is commonly eaten as a snack or dessert.
Burmese fruit preserves, called yo (ယို), are also commonly eaten as standalone snacks. Common ones include fruit preserves made from
.300 cultivars of mango are grown in Myanmar, including seintalon (စိန်တစ်လုံး, lit. 'one diamond'), Ma Chit Su (မချစ်စု), and mya kyauk (မြကျောက်, lit. 'emerald stone').[12][70] 13 species of banana are locally cultivated in Myanmar, including the following cultivars:[71]
- red - locally called shweni (ရွှေနီ, lit. 'golden red')
- Dwarf Cavendish - locally called htawbat (သီးမွှေး, lit. 'fragrant fruit')
- Mysore - locally called Rakhine (ရခိုင်), sweet and rounder in shape[12]
- Latundan - locally called htawbat (ထောပတ်, lit. 'butter')
Beverages
Tea is the national drink of Myanmar, reflecting the influence of Buddhism and its views on
Burmese tea
Plain green tea, yay nway gyan (ရေနွေးကြမ်း, lit. 'crude tea water'), is a popular form of tea drunk in Myanmar.[32] Tea leaves are traditionally cultivated in Shan State and Kachin State.[32] Milk tea, called laphet yay cho (လက်ဖက်ရည်ချို), made with strongly brewed black tea leaves, and sweetened with a customized ratio of condensed milk and evaporated milk, is also popular.[74][6]
Alcohol
Palm wine, called htan yay (ထန်းရည်), made from the fermented sap of the toddy palm, is traditionally consumed in rural parts of Upper Myanmar[75] Ethnic communities, including the Kachin and Shan, also brew local moonshines.[76] Several ethnic minorities traditionally brew alcoholic beverages using rice or glutinous rice called khaung (ခေါင်ရည်).[77] The khaung of the Chin peoples is brewed using millet seeds.[77] Locally brewed beers include Irrawaddy, Mandalay, Myanmar, and Tiger.[72]
Food establishments
Restaurants
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Dine-in restaurants that serve steamed rice with traditional Burmese curries and dishes are called htamin hsaing (ထမင်းဆိုင်; lit. 'rice shop'). At traditional curry shops, soup is typically served complimentary, alongside pickled and raw vegetables, chutneys and various seasonings.[12]
Tea shops
During British rule in Burma, Burmese Indians introduced tea shops to the country, first known as kaka hsaing, which later evolved into teashops called laphet yay hsaing (လက်ဖက်ရည်ဆိုင်) or kaphi (ကဖီး), the latter word from French café. Burmese tea shop culture emerged from a combination of British, Indian, and Chinese influences throughout the colonial period.[78] Teashops are prevalent across the country, forming an important part of communal life.[33][79] Typically open throughout the day, some Burmese tea shops cater to locals, long distance drivers and travellers alike. The Burmese typically gather in tea shops to drink milk tea served with an extensive array of snacks and meals.[78]
Street food
Street food stalls and hawkers are a feature of the Burmese urban landscape, especially in major cities like Yangon.[80] Burmese salads, snacks, and fritters are especially popular street foods.[81] In recent years, some major cities have clamped down on street food vendors. In 2016, Yangon banned the city's 6,000 street vendors from selling food on major thoroughfares, and relocated them to formal night markets set up by the city.[82]
Night markets, called nya zay (ညဈေး), are a feature of many Burmese towns and cities. Colonial observers as early as 1878 noted Burmese street hawkers selling delicacies, such as fruits, cakes, and laphet during "night bazaars."[83] The streets surrounding major daytime markets, such as Zegyo Market in Mandalay, typically double as makeshift night markets during the evenings.[84]
See also
Notes
- ^ The traditional rhyme is "A thee ma, thayet; a thar ma, wet; a ywet ma, lahpet" (အသီးမှာသရက်၊ အသားမှာဝက်၊ အရွက်မှာလက်ဖက်။).
- ^ The traditional Burmese proverb reads မန္တလေးစကား ရန်ကုန်အကြွား မော်လမြိုင်အစား.
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Further reading
- Myanmar Business Today; Print Edition, 27 February 2014. A Roadmap to Building Myanmar into the Food Basket of Asia, by David DuByne & Hishamuddin Koh
External links
- Photo guide to eating in Myanmar
- Guide to eating vegetarian in Myanmar
- Mi Mi Khaing, Cook and Entertain the Burmese Way. Rangoon, 1975