Byblos
Byblos
جُبَيْل Jebeil | |
---|---|
City | |
UTC+3 (EEST) | |
Dialing code | +961 |
Website | www |
Criteria | Cultural: iii, iv, vi |
Reference | 295 |
Inscription | 1984 (8th Session) |
Byblos (
It was in ancient Byblos that the Phoenician alphabet, likely the ancestor of the Greek, Latin and all other Western alphabets, was developed.[5]
Etymology
| |||
kbnj[6] in hieroglyphs | |||
---|---|---|---|
Era: 1st Intermediate Period (2181–2055 BC) | |||
Its present
The Phoenician city, known to the Greeks as Býblos (Βύβλος) and to the Romans as Byblus, was important for their import of papyrus from Egypt[12] – to the extent that "byblos" came to mean "papyrus" in Greek. The English word "Bible", therefore, ultimately derives from the Greek name of the city.[13][14][15]
| |||
kbn[6][16] in hieroglyphs | |||
---|---|---|---|
Era: Middle Kingdom (2055–1650 BC) | |||
History and archaeology
Situated approximately 42 km (26 mi) north of Beirut, Byblos holds a strong allure for archaeologists due to its accumulations of various strata resulting from countless centuries of human dwelling. The initial excavation was conducted by Ernest Renan in 1860, documented in his work "Mission de Phénicie" (1865–1874). This was succeeded by Pierre Montet's efforts from 1921 to 1924, and later by Maurice Dunand, who continued excavations from 1925 for a span of forty years.[17][18] Renan's expedition was to "provide the evidence that the city did not move and that Gebeil is Byblos".[19]
Fragments attributed to the semi-legendary pre-
Neolithic and Chalcolithic levels
Dunand's five-level stratigraphy
Prehistoric settlements at Byblos were divided up by Dunand into the following five periods, which were recently expanded and re-calibrated by Yosef Garfinkel to correlate with Tell es-Sultan (Jericho):
- Early Neolithic (early phase) corresponding to the Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (PPNB) of Jericho, represented by plastered floors and naviforme technology, dated between 8800 and 7000 BC;
- Early Neolithic (late phase) corresponding to the and small points;
- Middle Neolithic corresponding to the PNB of Tell es-Sultan (Jericho) VIII and represented by pottery, dated between 5800 and 5300 BC;
- Late Neolithic corresponding to the Middle Beth Shean and represented by pottery, stone vessels, silos, chamber tombsand seals, dated between 5300 and 4500 BC;
- Early Chalcolithic corresponding to the Late Chalcolithic of Ghassulian, represented by jar burials, pierced flint, churn and a violin figurine, dated to between 4500 and 3600 BC and,
- Late Chalcolithic corresponding to the Early Bronze Age, represented by architecture and cylinder seal impressions, dated to between 3600 and 3100 BC.[1]
The site first appears to have been settled during the Pre-Pottery Neolithic B period, approximately 8800 to 7000 BC[1][27] (Durand's Early Neolithic).
Early Neolithic Byblos was a later settlement than others in the Beqaa Valley such as Labweh and Ard Tlaili. It was located on the seaward slope of the larger of the two hills that used to compose ancient Byblos, with a watered valley in between.[28]
The original site spread down into the valley and covered an area of 1.2 ha (3.0 acres) providing fertile soils and a protected landing place for boats. Dunand discovered around twenty houses although some of the settlement was suggested to have been lost to the sea, robbed or destroyed.[18][29][30][31][32][33][34] Dwellings were rectangular with plastered floors, pottery was usually Dark faced burnished ware with some shell impressions.[35]
The Middle Neolithic was a smaller settlement of no more than 0.15 ha (0.37 acres) adjacent to the older site. The pottery was more developed with red washes and more varied forms and elaborate decorations, buildings were poorer with unplastered floors.
The Late Neolithic period showed development from the middle in building design, a wider range of more developed flint tools and a far larger variety of pottery with fabrication including silica. The Late Chalcolithic featured developments of "Canaanean blades" and fan scrapers. Adult burials in jars started to appear along with metal in the form of one copper hook, found in a jar. Some jars were lined with white plaster that was applied and self-hardened after firing.[36] Copper appeared more frequently in the Late Chalcolithic period along with multiple burials in tombs and jar handles with impressed signs.[24]
Early Bronze
According to Lorenzo Nigro, Byblos moved from being a fishermen's village to its earlier urban form at the beginning of the third millennium BC.[37] Early Bronze Age remains were characterised by the development of Byblos combed ware and a lithic assemblage studied by Jacques Cauvin.[28][38]
Watson Mills and Roger Bullard suggest that during the Old Kingdom of Egypt and Middle Kingdom of Egypt Byblos was virtually an Egyptian colony.[17] The growing city was a wealthy one and seems to have been an ally (among "those who are on his waters") of Egypt for many centuries. First Dynasty tombs used timbers from Byblos. One of the oldest Egyptian words for an oceangoing boat was "Byblos ship". Archaeologists have recovered Egyptian-made artifacts as old as a vessel fragment bearing the name of the Second dynasty ruler Khasekhemwy, although this "may easily have reached Byblos through trade and/or at a later period".[39]
Middle Bronze
Objects have been found at Byblos naming the 13th Dynasty Egyptian king Neferhotep I.
Late Bronze
The rulers of Byblos maintained close relationships with the New Kingdom pharaohs of Ancient Egypt
Around 1350 BC, the
It appears Egyptian contact peaked during the 19th dynasty, only to decline during the 20th and 21st dynasties. In addition, when the New Kingdom collapsed in the 11th century BC, Byblos ceased being a colony and became the foremost city of Phoenicia.[40] Although the archaeological evidence seems to indicate a brief resurgence during the 22nd and 23rd dynasties, it is clear after the Third Intermediate Period the Egyptians started favouring Tyre and Sidon instead of Byblos.[41]
Archaeological evidence at Byblos, particularly the five
Iron Age
In the Assyrian period, Sibittibaal of Byblos became tributary to Tiglath-Pileser III in 738 BC, and in 701 BC, when Sennacherib conquered all Phoenicia, the king of Byblos was Urumilki. Byblos was also subject to Assyrian kings Esarhaddon (r. 681–669 BC) and Ashurbanipal (r. 668–627 BC), under its kings Milkiasaph and Yehawmelek.
In the Achaemenid Empire (538–332 BC), Byblos was the fourth of four Phoenician vassal kingdoms established by the Persians; the first three being Sidon, Tyre, and Arwad.
Hellenistic rule came with the arrival of Alexander the Great in the area in 332 BC. Coinage was in use, and there is abundant evidence of continued trade with other Mediterranean countries.
During the Greco-Roman period, the temple of Resheph was elaborately rebuilt, and the city, though smaller than its neighbours such as Tyre and Sidon, was a centre for the cult of Adonis. In the 3rd century, a small but impressive theatre was constructed. With the rise of Christianity, a bishopric was established in Byblos, and the town grew rapidly. Although a Sasanian colony is known to have been established in the region following the early Muslim conquests of 636, there is little archaeological evidence for it. Trade with Europe effectively dried up, and it was not until the coming of the First Crusade in 1098 that prosperity returned to Byblos, known then as Gibelet or Giblet.
Crusader, Mamluk, Ottoman period
In the 12th and 13th century, Byblos became part of the
As Gibelet or Giblet, it came under the rule of the
The Embriaco family's residence, the
Having voluntarily surrendered to the Mamluks, the city was relatively spared from looting following its capture.[43] Its fortifications were subsequently restored by Baybars.[44] From 1516 until 1918, the town and the whole region became part of the Ottoman Empire.
Contemporary history
Byblos and all of Lebanon were placed under
Demographics
Byblos's inhabitants are predominantly Christian, mostly
Education
Byblos is home to the professional schools of the Lebanese American University (LAU). The LAU Byblos Campus houses the Medical School, the Engineering School, the School of Architecture and Design, the Pharmacy School, which offers the only Pharm.D. Program outside the United States accredited by the Accreditation Council for Pharmacy Education (ACPE),[48] the School of Business, and the School of Arts and Sciences. The Campus is situated on a hill overlooking the city and the Mediterranean Sea.
Tourism
Byblos is re-emerging as an upscale touristic hub.
The Byblos archaeological site
- Ain el-Malik or King's Spring, about 20 m deep, is a large cavity accessible by spiral stairs. Once it supplied the city with water. [52]According to Plutarch's version of the Egyptian Osiris myth, the king's servants met Isis on the stairs of the spring and took her to the royal palace, where she found the body of her husband Osiris embedded in one of the palace pillars.[53]
- The L-shaped Temple was erected about 2700 BC.
- The Temple of the Obelisks, originally built in 1600–1200 BC on top of the “L-shaped temple,” was moved by archaeologists to its present location. The many small obelisks found in this temple were used as religious offerings. The sanctuary contained a large number of human figurines made of bronze covered with gold leaf, which are now displayed in the National Museum of Beirut.
- The Ahiram.
- The Roman theaterwas built around AD 218.
Other historic buildings
- Byblos Wax Museum
The Byblos Wax Museum displays wax statues of characters whose dates of origin range from Phoenician times to current days.
- Byblos Fossil Museum
The Byblos Fossil Museum has a collection of fossilised fish, sharks, eel, flying fish, and other marine life, some of which are millions of years old.
- Medieval city wall
The old medieval part of Byblos is surrounded by walls running about 270m from east to west and 200m from north to south.
- Byblos Castle
Byblos Castle was built by the Crusaders in the 12th century. It is located in the archaeological site near the port.
Work on the church started during the Crusades in 1115. It was considered a cathedral and was partially destroyed during an earthquake in AD 1170. It was later given to the Maronite bishop as a gift by Prince Yusuf Shihab.[54]
- Sultan Abduljid Mosque
The old mosque by the Castle dates back to the Mamluk period, and adopted the name of Sultan Abdulmejid I after he renovated it.
- Historic Quarter and Souks
In the southeast section of the historic city, near the entrance of the archaeological site, is an old market where tourists can shop for souvenirs and antiques, or simply stroll along the old cobblestone streets and enjoy the architecture.
- Byblos International Festival
This summer music festival is an annual event that takes place in the historic quarter.
- Temple of Baalat Gebal
Notable people
- Majdi Allawi (born 1970), Lebanese Maronite priest, association founder
International relations
- Twin towns – sister cities
Byblos is
Gallery
Further reading
- Jidéjian, Nina (1968). Byblos through the ages. Beirut: Dar al Machreq. OCLC 7630.
- ISBN 9782914266048.
- ISBN 978-0521795432.
- Baumgarten, Albert I. (1981). The Phoenician History of Philo of Byblos: A Commentary. Leiden: E. J. Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-06369-3.
- Elayi, Josette; Elayi, A. G. (2014). A Monetary and Political History of the Phoenician City of Byblos: In the Fifth and Fourth Centuries B.C.E. Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns. ISBN 978-1575063041.
- Kaufman, Asher S. (2004). Reviving Phoenicia: In Search of Identity In Lebanon. London: I.B. Tauris. ISBN 978-1780767796.
- Moscati, Sabatino (1999). The World of the Phoenicians. London: Phoenix Giant. ISBN 9780753807460.
- Nibbi, Alessandra (1985). Ancient Byblos Reconsidered. Oxford: DE Publications. ISBN 0951070401.
See also
- Byblos syllabary
- Cities of the ancient Near East
Notes
- ^ ISBN 978-1-84217-132-5. Retrieved 18 January 2012.
- ^ ISBN 1-57607-919-8. Retrieved 22 July 2009.
Archaeological excavations at Byblos indicate that the site has been continually inhabited since at least 5000 B.C.
- ISBN 978-88-88438-06-1. Archivedfrom the original on 2023-09-23. Retrieved 17 February 2017.
- ^ "Byblos". UNESCO. Retrieved 14 March 2018.
- ^ "Phoenician alphabet | Definition, Letters, & History | Britannica". www.britannica.com. Retrieved 2022-11-11.
- ^ a b Gauthier, Henri (1928). Dictionnaire des Noms Géographiques Contenus dans les Textes Hiéroglyphiques Vol. 5. pp. 197–198.
- ^ de Césarée, E. (1659). Eusebii pamphili caesareae palestinae episcopi Liber de locis hebraicis: Sive onomasticon urbium et locorum Sacrae Scripturae. Nunc primùm Graecè editum, cum Latina versione Sancti Hieronymi. Et variis Additamentis R. P. Jacobi Bonfrerii Soc. Iesu. Unà cum Commentariis ejusdem in Josue, Judices, & Ruth (in Latin). apud Sebastianum Cramoisy Regis & Reginae Architypographum. p. 70.
- ISBN 978-0553384901.
- ^ Head, et al. (1911), p. 791.
- ISBN 9783406306549..
- ^ Ezekiel 27:9.
- ^ "Byblos Mart -- Bookworms Corner".
- ISBN 978-0-8010-1316-4.
- ISBN 978-0-8389-1090-0.
- Beekes, R. S. P.(2009). Etymological Dictionary of Greek. Leiden and Boston: Brill. pp. 246–7.
- ^ Wallis Budge, E. A. (1920). An Egyptian hieroglyphic dictionary: with an index of English words, king list and geological list with indexes, list of hieroglyphic characters, coptic and semitic alphabets, etc. Vol II. John Murray. p. 1047.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-86554-373-7. Retrieved 8 July 2011.
- ^ a b Moore, A.M.T. (1978). The Neolithic of the Levant. Oxford University, Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis. pp. 329–339.
- ^ Montet, Pierre (1928). Byblos et l'Égypte: quatre campagnes de fouilles à Gebeil, 1921-1922-1923-1924. P. Geuthner. p. 3.
- [Original French]: "D’abord, le site de Byblos était fixé sans conteste possible. Le passage où Strabon définit Byblos une ville située sur une colline à quelque distance de la nier, avait égaré les savants. Renan lui-même avait songé à Qassouba, mais il comprit vite que cette colline était trop peu importante pour avoir été le siège d’une ville telle que Byblos. L’abondance des fragments antiques recueillis aux environs de la citadelle, la situation des nécropoles au nord et au sud de l’enceinte franque prouvent jusqu'à l’évidence que la ville ne s’est pas déplacée et que Gebeil recouvre Byblos."
- [English translation]: "First, the site of Byblos was fixed without question possible. The passage where Strabon defines Byblos as a city situated on a hill some distance away from it, had misled the scientists. Renan himself had thought of Qassouba, but he soon realised that this hill was too small to have been the seat of a city such as Byblos. The abundance of ancient fragments collected around the citadel, the situation of the necropolises to the north and south of the Frankish enclosure provide the evidence that the city did not move and that Gebeil is Byblos."
- ^ "The Theology of the Phœnicians: From Sanchoniatho". www.sacred-texts.com.
- ^ Cauvin, Jacques., Les industries lithiques du tell de Byblos (Liban), L'Anthropologie, vol. 66, 5–6, 1962.
- ^ Vallois, H.V., Note sur les ossements humains de la nécropole énéolithique de Byblos (avec 2 planches). Bulletin du musée de Beyrouth. Tome I, 1937. Beyrouth.
- ^ Chehab, Emir M., Tombes des chefs d'époque énéolithique trouvés à Byblos, Bulletin du Musée de Beyrouth. Tome IX, 1949–1950, Beyrouth.
- ^ HarvardLibrary) 1960.
- ^ Erich, R., Relative chronologies in Old World Archaeology, Chicago, 1954.
- ^ Van Liere, W. and Contenson, Henri de, "Holocene Environment and Early Settlement in the Levant", Annales archéologiques de Syrie, volume 14, pp. 125–128, 1964.
- ^ Vogel, J.C. Waterbolk, H.T., Groningen Radiocarbon Dates X, Radiocarbon, 14, 6–110 / 105, 1972.
- ^ a b Lorraine Copeland; P. Wescombe (1965). Inventory of Stone-Age sites in Lebanon, p. 78-79. Imprimerie Catholique. Retrieved 21 July 2011.[permanent dead link]
- ^ Dunand, Maurice., Rapport préliminaire sure les fouilles de Byblos en 1948, 1949, Bulletin du musée de Beyrouth. Tome IX, 1949–1950, Beyrouth.
- ^ Dunand, Maurice., Fouilles de Byblos, vol II, Atlas, Paris, 1950d (also part I, 1954 – part II, 1958).
- ^ Dunand, Maurice., Chronologie des plus anciennes installations de Byblos, Revue Biblique, vol. 57, 1950b.
- ^ Dunand, Maurice., Rapport préliminaire sure les fouilles de Byblos en 1950, 1951 & 1952, Bulletin du musée de Beyrouth. Tome XII, 1955, Beyrouth.
- ^ Dunand, Maurice., Rapport préliminaire sure les fouilles de Byblos en 1954, 1955, Bulletin du musée de Beyrouth. Tome XIII, 1956, Beyrouth.
- ^ Fleisch, Henri., Préhistoire au Liban en 1950, Bulletin de la Société Préhistorique Français, vol. 48, 1–2, p. 26. (Contains report on Byblos presented by Maurice Dunand to the 3rd C.I.S.E.A., Brussels, 1948), 1951.
- ^ Dunand, Maurice., Rapport préliminaire sure les fouilles de Byblos en 1960, 1961 & 1962, Bulletin du musée de Beyrouth. Tome XVII, 1964, Beyrouth.
- ^ Dunand, Maurice., Rapport préliminaire sure les fouilles de Byblos en 1957, 1958 & 1959, Bulletin du musée de Beyrouth. Tome XVI, 1961, Beyrouth.
- ISBN 978-88-88438-06-1. Retrieved 17 February 2017.
- ^ Fleisch, Henri., Néolithique du Proche-Orient, Bulletin de la Société Préhistorique Français, vol. 49, 5–6, p. 212. (Contains report on Byblos excavations of 1951 by Maurice Dunand), 1952.
- ^ Wilkinson, Toby, 1999, Early Dynastic Egypt p. 78.
- ISBN 0-85229-553-7
- ISBN 978-0-19-280458-7
- ^ "EMBRIACI in "Enciclopedia Italiana"". www.treccani.it (in Italian). Retrieved 2020-12-15.
- ^ Renan, Ernest (1864). Mission de Phénicie. Paris: Imprimerie impériale. p. 157.
- ^ Maurice Dunand (1973). Byblos: Its History, Ruins and Legends. Beirut. p. 41.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - ICOMOS.
- ^ "Lebanon Elections 2005". Proud-to-be-lebanese.com. Archived from the original on 2012-12-01. Retrieved 2012-10-31.
- ^ "Elections municipales et ikhtiariah au Mont-Liban" (PDF). Localiban. 2010. p. 19. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2015-07-24. Retrieved 2016-02-12.
- ^ "Lebanese American University". AAICU. 2016-02-29. Retrieved 2020-09-22.
- ^ a b Beehner, Lionel (2010-01-03). "Byblos, Lebanon's Ancient Port, Is Reborn". The New York Times. Retrieved 2010-04-27.
- ^ "Middle East: Top 5 Cities: Readers' Choice Awards : Condé Nast Traveler". Cntraveler.com. 2012-10-16. Archived from the original on 2013-05-15. Retrieved 2013-03-26.
- ^ "Byblos crowned best Arab tourist city". Retrieved 20 June 2013.
- ^ "Temple of the Obelisks in Byblos". www.obelisks.org.
- ^ "Isis and Osiris Legend". www.phoenician.org.
- ^ "St. John-Marc Church". jbail-byblos.gov.lb.
References
- Head, Barclay; et al. (1911), "Phoenicia", Historia Numorum (2nd ed.), Oxford: Clarendon Press, pp. 788–801
External links
- Media related to Byblos at Wikimedia Commons
- Byblos travel guide from Wikivoyage
- "Byblos". Lebanon, the Cedars' Land.
- "Byblos info". middleeast.com.
- "Embassy of Lebanon in Canada". Byblos. Archived from the original on 2006-10-10.
- "Byblos in Belarus". byblos.by. Archived from the original on 2020-01-22. Retrieved 2021-06-15.
- "Radio Carbon Context Database". University of Cologne. Archived from the original on 2011-08-13. Retrieved 2011-05-04.
- Baalat ancient deity, chiefly of Byblos