Byzantine studies

Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
(Redirected from
Byzantinology
)
University of Sofia
, 9 November 1934

Byzantine studies is an interdisciplinary branch of the

Renaissance Humanist. He gave the name "Byzantine" to the Eastern Roman Empire that continued after the Western Roman Empire collapsed in 476 AD. About 100 years after the final conquest of Constantinople by the Ottomans, Wolf began to collect, edit, and translate the writings of Byzantine philosophers.[1] Other 16th-century humanists introduced Byzantine studies to Holland and Italy.[1]
The subject may also be called Byzantinology or Byzantology, although these terms are usually found in English translations of original non-English sources. A scholar of Byzantine studies is called a Byzantinist.

Structure

23rd Byzantology Congress in Belgrade, 2016 post stamp of Serbia

Definition

Byzantine studies is the discipline that addresses the history and culture of Byzantium (Byzantium ↔ Byzantine Empire, the Greek Middle Ages; Byzantium = Constantinople [as capital of the Byzantine Empire]).[2] Thus the unity of the object of investigation ("Byzantium") stands in contrast to the diversity of approaches (= specializations) that may be applied to it. – There were already "Byzantine" studies in the high medieval Byzantine Empire. In the later Middle Ages, the interest in Byzantium (in particular the original Greek sources) was carried on by Italian humanism, and it expanded in the 17th century throughout Europe and Russia. The late 19th and early 20th centuries brought the formation of Byzantine studies as an independent discipline.

Byzantium

Main article: History of the Byzantine Empire

Greek-Hellenistic culture, Roman state traditions, Oriental influence and

Themes, was limited to the Greek-speaking regions of the Balkan peninsula, Asia Minor, and southern Italy; Latin
was abandoned as the language of officialdom. This may be perceived as the "end of antiquity", and the beginning of the "Middle Byzantine" era.

This was also the era of

Comnenian Dynasty, at least until the Battle of Myriokephalon (1176). Internal conflicts facilitated the sack of Constantinople by the Crusaders (the Fourth Crusade
of 1204) and the establishment of Latin states in the south Balkans.

The late period of the Byzantine Empire as a small state begins with the

Mistras in 1461). The Empire of Trebizond
(1204–1461), founded in the wake of the Fourth Crusade, also forms a part of Byzantine history.

Languages

It is possible to distinguish between three levels of speech: Atticism (the literary language),

Koine (the common language of the Hellenistic period), and Demotic (the popular language, and the forerunner of modern Greek). Thus a certain diglossia
between spoken Greek and written, classical Greek may be discerned.

Major genres of Byzantine literature include historiography (both in the classical mode and in the form of chronicles), hagiography (in the form of the biographical account or bios and the panegyric or enkomion); hagiographic collections (the menaia and synaxaria), epistolography, rhetoric, and poetry. From the Byzantine administration, broadly construed, we have works such as description of peoples and cities, accounts of court ceremonies, and lists of precedence. Technical literature is represented, for example, by texts on military strategy. Collections of civil and canon law are preserved, as well as documents and acta (see "Diplomatics" below). Some texts in the demotic are also preserved.

Identity

See also: Byzantine Greeks

There are currently three main schools of thought on medieval eastern Roman identity in modern Byzantine scholarship: 1) a potentially preponderant view that considers "Romanity" the mode of self-identification of the subjects of a multi-ethnic empire, in which the elite did not self-identify as Greek and the average subject considered him/herself as "Roman", 2) a school of thought that developed largely under the influence of modern Greek nationalism, treating Romanness as the medieval manifestation of a perennial Greek national identity, 3) a line of thought recently proposed by Anthony Kaldellis arguing that Eastern Roman identity was a pre-modern national identity.[3]

Auxiliary sciences

Modes of transmission

Modes of transmission entails the study of texts that are preserved primarily on papyrus, parchment or paper, in addition to inscriptions, coins, and medals. The papyrus rolls of antiquity (papyrology) are quickly replaced by the parchment codices of the Middle Ages (codicology), while paper arrives in the 9th century via the Arabs and Chinese.

Diplomatics

sigillia, codicilli).[4][5] Sacred documents are the documents and official letters of the patriarchs, including the gramma, homologia (creeds), diatheke (testaments), 'aphorismos (excommunication), paraitesis (abdication) as well as the ceremonial praxis (synodike) and the hypotyposis (the resolution of a synod) and the tomos (dogmatic edicts). The most splendid form of privileged communication, in the form of a letter, was chrysobullos logos so called because the Emperor's word (logos) appeared three times in red ink.[5] They were used in the appointments of Imperial ambassadors and they were stamped with the Imperial golden seal (Chrysos = gold and bulla = seal).[5]

Sigillography and palaeography

Specific subsets of diplomatics entail sigillography, the study of seals, and palaeography, the study of scripts.[6]

Epigraphy

Byzantine epigraphy entails the study of various stone, metal, ivory, mosaic, enamel, and paint inscriptions.

Numismatics

Byzantine numismatics entails the study of imperial coins and mints. Building on the gold standard of Late Antiquity, the Byzantine monetary system was, until the middle of the 14th century, based on a gold standard, and included silver, bronze, and copper coins. With the economic and political decline of the late period, the gold standard was abandoned in the final century of Byzantine history, and replaced by a silver-based system.

Metrology

Main article: Byzantine units of measurement

Byzantine

mile, allage, and an average day's journey.[7] Measure of volume included: litra, tagarion, pinakion, modios, and those of surface area modios, megalos modios and zeugarion.[8] Measures for water and wine were called megarikon, metron and tetartion.[8] Measures of weight were krithokokkon, sitokokkon, gramma, obolos, drachme, ungia, litra, kentenarion, gomarion and pesa.[8]

Chronology

Byzantine chronology entails the study of the computation of time. According to the various Byzantine calendar systems, Year 1 AD. = Year 754 ab urbe condita = the first year of the 195th Olympiad = Year 49 of the Antiochean era = Year 5493 of the Alexandrine era = Year 312 of the Seleucid era = Year 5509 from the formation of the world. The Byzantine year began with 1 September, believed to be the Day of Creation, e.g., 1 January through 31 August belonged to the year 5508, 1 September through 31 December to the year 5509. Dating according to indiction remained standard.

Organizations

Journals

Notable people

See also: Category:Byzantinists

See also

References

  1. ^ a b Byzantium: Faith and Power (1261–1557), Helen C. Evans, ed., exh. cat. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art; New Haven: Yale University Press, 2004 Quote: "And, whereas Wolf initiated Byzantine studies in Germany, particularly through the editing of texts, other sixteenth-century humanists were doing the same in Holland and Italy."
  2. ^ Byzantine Studies definition from Oxford University
  3. ^ Stouraitis 2014, pp. 176-177 with footnotes 2-4
  4. ^ Realities of Byzantine Provincial Government: Hellas and Peloponnesos, 1180-1205 Judith Herrin Dumbarton Oaks Papers, Vol. 29, 1975 (1975), pp. 253–284
  5. ^ a b c Britannica on chrysobullos logos
  6. ^ Dumbarton Oaks on Nicolas Oikonomides Archived 2006-03-31 at the Wayback Machine: "Dumbarton Oaks has lost a good friend. On 31 May 2000, Nicolas Oikonomides, Dumbarton Oaks’s advisor for Byzantine sigillography, died in Athens after a brief illness".
  7. ^ Ancient Greek Units of Length
  8. ^ a b c The Economic History of Byzantium: From the Seventh through the Fifteenth Century Archived 2009-03-24 at the Wayback Machine Angeliki E. Laiou, Editor-in-Chief Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection Washington, D.C. © 2002 Dumbarton Oaks Trustees for Harvard University Washington, D.C.

Literature

External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Byzantine studies.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Byzantine_studies&oldid=1165402428"