C. D. Howe
C. D. Howe | |
---|---|
Member of Parliament for Port Arthur | |
In office 14 October 1935 – 10 June 1957 | |
Preceded by | new riding |
Succeeded by | Douglas M. Fisher |
Personal details | |
Born | Clarence Decatur Howe 15 January 1886 Waltham, Massachusetts, U.S. |
Died | 31 December 1960 Montreal, Quebec, Canada | (aged 74)
Political party | Liberal |
Spouse |
Alice Worcester (m. 1916) |
Children | 5 |
Alma mater | Massachusetts Institute of Technology |
Occupation |
|
Signature | |
Clarence Decatur Howe, PC (UK), PC (Can) (15 January 1886 – 31 December 1960) was an American-born Canadian engineer, businessman and Liberal Party politician. Howe served as a cabinet minister in the governments of prime ministers William Lyon Mackenzie King and Louis St. Laurent continuously from 1935 to 1957. He is credited with transforming the Canadian economy from agriculture-based to industrial. During the Second World War, his involvement in the war effort was so extensive that he was nicknamed the "Minister of Everything".[1]
Born in Massachusetts, Howe moved to Nova Scotia as a young adult to take up a professorship at Dalhousie University. After working for the Canadian government as an engineer, he began his own firm and became wealthy. In 1935, he was recruited as a Liberal candidate for the House of Commons of Canada by Mackenzie King. The Liberals won the election in a landslide and Howe won his seat. Mackenzie King appointed him to the Cabinet. There, he took major parts in many new enterprises, including the founding of the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (CBC) and Trans-Canada Air Lines (today Air Canada). Howe played a crucial role in Canada's war effort during WWII and recruited many corporate executives (as "dollar-a-year-men") to serve as executives in wartime enterprises.
Howe was impatient with parliamentary debates for his proposals, causing him to struggle with gaining popularity amongst parliamentarians; he was often accused of dictatorial conduct by the Opposition. As the Liberal government entered its third decade, it and Howe came to be seen as arrogant. The Government's attempt to impose closure in the 1956 Pipeline Debate led to major controversy in the House of Commons. In the 1957 election, Howe's actions and policies were made an issue by Opposition leader John Diefenbaker. Howe faced a serious challenge in his riding, but was expected to make speeches elsewhere as a major Liberal leader. Howe lost his seat in the election, and Diefenbaker became Prime Minister, ending almost 22 years of Liberal rule. Howe returned to the private sector, accepting a number of corporate directorships, and died suddenly of a heart attack in December 1960.
Early years and academic career
Howe was born on 15 January 1886 in
Clarence did well in school and, upon his graduation from
At the time, Dalhousie was a small university, with only 400 students, and members of the teaching staff had a heavy workload. Howe, at age 23, was little older than some of his students. He had little experience in the field, and on trips outside Halifax, he and his students would solve problems together. Howe's view was that any problem could be solved through common sense and hard work.
After Howe's first year in Halifax, engineering instruction of upperclassmen was taken away from Dalhousie. Howe later stated that he liked Dalhousie, and had this change not occurred, he might have remained there as a professor.[9] In 1913, a former colleague at Dalhousie, Robert Magill, who had recently been appointed chairman of the Board of Grain Commissioners, offered Howe the post of chief engineer, with responsibility for supervising the construction of grain elevators. Howe stated, "I've never seen one of those things in my life, but I'll take the job."[10] The same year, he applied to become a British subject, as Canadians then were.[11]
Engineer and businessman
In mid-1913, Howe journeyed to Northwestern Ontario to take up his new post. The Board was headquartered in Fort William, Ontario, where Canadian wheat was transferred from rail to ship. The Board sought to build a series of large terminal grain elevators, which could process as well as store grain. The project would increase both capacity and competition—grain elevator companies had been accused by farmers' interests of charging excessive prices. The first such elevator for the Board was raised in nearby Port Arthur, Ontario, and was acclaimed as one of the best grain elevators ever built in Canada, and one of the cheapest. Over the next two years, Howe traveled the West, supervising the construction of terminal elevators near major cities and ports. The capacity would be needed, as Canadian farmers increased production during the First World War.[12]
In late 1915, Howe traveled back to Massachusetts to court Alice Worcester, daughter of the head of the company he had worked for in the summer at MIT. After some surprise at the attention of a man she barely knew, Worcester eventually accepted him, and the two were married in mid-1916. The same year, he resigned from government service to go into business with partners as C. D. Howe and Company, whose major business was initially the construction of grain elevators.
Over the next several years, Howe's business expanded into engineering consulting and, much more profitably, general contracting.[16] His firm dominated the construction of grain elevators in the West, as the Saskatchewan and Alberta wheat pools gave him much of their construction business. This made him unpopular among private wheat companies: his firm did not receive any contracts to build terminal elevators for private corporations in the 1920s, but exceeded the number built by all other contractors combined, thanks to business from those cooperatives.[17] Howe's elevators were built more quickly, were better designed, and were cheaper to construct than those of his competitors. He worked to add to their efficiency; the Dominion-Howe unloader he helped design emptied a grain car in eight minutes, needing only two operators; the same operation had previously taken an hour for a crew of 20 men.[18]
In the early 1920s, Howe turned down several requests to stand for alderman in Port Arthur. He did agree to seek election to the school board in 1921, and headed the polls at his first attempt. He served two 2-year terms on the board, spending the final year as its chairman. Early in their marriage, Clarence and Alice Howe had decided to separate their roles, with Alice having full responsibility for their domestic lives. Clarence took no interest in his home life; as an often-absent father he had only a small role in the upbringing of his five children. In the same manner he did not involve his wife in his business (or, later public) life.[19] During his ministerial career, he replied in response to an opposition question hinting at nepotism, "I don't like to discuss my family in public. Members may have noticed that my wife never appears on political platforms."[20]
In October 1929, the firm completed a huge grain elevator, with the capacity of 7,000,000 bushels (246,670 cubic meters), at Port Arthur.
Politics
Election and prewar
In 1933, the Liberal Party was in opposition and considered Howe as a potential candidate for the House of Commons in the upcoming election. Howe, feeling political activism was bad for business, had not publicly expressed political views.
After Parliament assembled in early 1936, Howe sought to have it pass legislation to reform local port authorities. Individual ports were run by Boards of Harbour Commissioners, appointments to which were often politically influenced. A
Howe worked to place the government-dominated
Second World War
On 1 September 1939, Germany invaded Poland, starting WWII. Mackenzie King recalled Parliament into session beginning 7 September; during this session, Canada declared war on Germany and created a Department of Munitions and Supply.[40] It was some months before the department was established; in the meantime Howe supervised the War Purchasing Board. Howe worked to persuade many of his business contacts to work for him or for other government departments. Roberts suggests that no "political minister" could have done that, as many of Howe's recruits were Conservatives.[41] According to historian and author Michael Bliss, "[f]or Howe and other entrepreneurial spirits interested in the creative uses of government power, the war was a kind of ultimate megaproject, a great development job. Money didn't matter, production did."[42]
In
Howe's department was assisted by "dollar-a-year men", top managers in Canadian business[47] loaned to the government by their companies for a token payment of one dollar a year while their firms maintained them on their payrolls.[b] Even before the department was formally established, Howe's representatives were surveying the country for essential war needs, with the department accumulating huge reserves of strategic materials.[48] During the Second World War, Howe established 28 Crown Corporations of various responsibilities including secret projects and manufacturing the machine tools the rest of Canadian industry needed to continue operations. These corporations were responsible to Howe and Parliament received no word of their activities unless Howe mentioned them.[49]
With Canadian industry reorganized to supply the British war effort, Howe decided he needed to journey to Britain to discuss matters with the customers. He embarked on the S.S. Western Prince in December 1940. This was an intensely dangerous trip; Germany was attempting to blockade Britain and there were many German submarines in the North Atlantic. One of those submarines sank the Western Prince on 14 December. Howe survived the sinking and eight hours in a lifeboat. Gordon Scott, his aide, was killed trying to climb from the lifeboat to the rescuing ship. Howe professed coolness in the incident, but later told the Manchester Guardian that he considered every hour that he lived from that day onwards to be borrowed time.[50]
While on tour of British industrial plants, Howe was shown the
According to Roberts, "What Howe started in 1940 was an Industrial Revolution, so widespread that most Canadians were unaware of its extent or of its penetration into the country's economy."[54] Although there had been increases in production throughout the first three years of the war, the minister's efforts truly bore fruit in 1943, in which Canada had the fourth-highest industrial production among the Allies, trailing only the US, USSR, and Britain. By 1944, Canada had produced over 600 ships for the war effort, 1,100 aircraft, and over half a million cars and trucks, of which 31,000 were armoured. According to Roberts, Howe's actions swung Canada's economy from agriculture-based to industrial, a change that became permanent.[55]
"What's a million?"
During the debate on Howe's war spending estimates in 1945 (which totalled $1.365 billion), Howe answered an Opposition question on whether such a large sum could be reduced: "I dare say my honourable friend could cut a million dollars from that amount, but a million dollars from the War Appropriations Bill would not be a very important matter."[56] Saskatchewan Tory MP John Diefenbaker spoke the following day, and alleged that Howe had said, "We may save a million dollars, but what of it?"[57] Howe angrily denied the quote, accusing Diefenbaker of being "a past master of distortion"—language he was forced to withdraw as unparliamentary. Diefenbaker sharpened the anecdote over time, and it emerged in its final form as Howe saying, "What's a million?" Even Liberals who knew that Howe had made no such statement agreed that it was just the sort of thing he could have said.[57] In the years to come, "What's a million?" would be a mocking Tory attack on the Liberals, most often directed at Howe.[58]
Postwar
Mackenzie King years
In October 1944, Mackenzie King appointed Howe Minister of Reconstruction.
Howe favoured a quick transition to a peacetime economy. Most industries in which there were no shortages were released from government controls in late 1945. Labour leaders, fearing unemployment, wanted to keep wartime government plants in production; Howe opposed such proposals. When union members who were laid off from the
Howe was determined to support technologically advanced industries and wanted Canada to continue the production of aircraft after the war. His Director-General for Aircraft Production, Ralph Bell, disagreed with him, noting that Canada had no aircraft engine manufacturer and that despite the presence of manufacturing plants and skilled workers, there was no guarantee that they could sell their products. Howe took steps to keep aircraft manufacturers in business, allowing the British
After the war, Mackenzie King recommended to the British government that two Cabinet ministers be appointed to the
In February 1947, Mackenzie King fell ill with pneumonia and, after recovering, spent a month on vacation in the United States, with St. Laurent (by then
St. Laurent government's first mandate
On 20 January 1948, Mackenzie King announced his intent to resign and a Cabinet reshuffle; both St. Laurent
In October 1948, the Progressive Conservatives also elected a new leader, Ontario Premier George A. Drew.[77] St. Laurent called an election for June 1949, and Howe again was successful in fundraising from corporate backers, including CPR and Eaton's. Drew had used Howe's record as an election issue, accusing him of being power-mad and selling off Crown Corporations for bargain prices, but the allegations got little traction. According to Howe, the only result of Drew's attacks "was to give me a record majority in Port Arthur!"[78] The Liberals won a huge victory, taking 190 seats to 40 for the Tories, and Howe again won Port Arthur easily.[78]
In early 1950, St. Laurent considered recommending the appointment of Howe as governor general. The governor general had previously been a
Canada entered the Korean War in 1950.[80] Howe saw it as the wrong war in the wrong place, and thought that Canadian troops should not be sent. Nevertheless, he spent the summer of 1950 at his desk, making plans to implement government controls on the booming economy. In September 1950, Howe tabled a bill allowing him to reallocate scarce materials such as steel from the civilian sector to military use. The bill passed, but not before the Opposition had charged that Howe had "an enormous appetite for power".[81] Late in the year, the Government decided on a massive rearmament program. The Canadian Commercial Corporation, the Crown Corporation which handled government purchases, was felt to be inadequate for the task, so the Cabinet decided on a new department to handle procurement.[82] St. Laurent introduced a bill in February 1951 creating a Department of Defence Production and announced that on passage, Howe would add that responsibility to his portfolio.[83] The opposition parties objected to the Defence Production Act, stating that there was no emergency justifying the powers Howe wanted. According to Roberts, Howe sought to implement rearmament by getting "full power for himself and running rights over everyone and everything to get an urgent job done".[84] Backed by the overwhelming Liberal majority, the bill passed and the Department was established on 1 April 1951.[85]
Despite Avro Canada's success in producing the CF-100, Canada's first jet fighter for the Royal Canadian Air Force (RCAF), aircraft development had proven to be a time-consuming and expensive process. The projected next generation aircraft, Canada's first supersonic jet interceptor, the CF-105 Arrow, was a more daunting project in terms of financial commitment and a leap in technological prowess. Howe wrote in a letter to Defence Minister Claxton in 1952 that "I am frightened for the first time in my defence production experience."[86]
St. Laurent's supervision of his ministers was minimal at the start of his tenure, and decreased as the years passed. With the Opposition few in numbers, ministers did as they wanted, and when Howe was accused by Tory MP Howard Green in 1951 of being willing to end tariffs if the people would let him, Howe replied, "Who would stop us? Don't take yourself too seriously. If we wanted to get away with it, who would stop us?"[87][88]
The government spent much of early 1953 in enacting the remainder of its legislative program. St. Laurent scheduled an election for 10 August; Drew attempted to exploit a Defence Ministry scandal at the
St. Laurent government's second mandate
Beginning in 1954, Howe planned for pipelines to take Alberta's natural gas to market. There were US-backed proposals to build pipelines directly to the United States; Howe wanted a route passing north of the Great Lakes which could supply Toronto and Montreal.[90] Two rival groups contended for the approval which Howe had the power to grant; Howe forced the groups to work together on the route he wanted.[91]
In March 1955, St. Laurent tabled legislation to make the Department of Defence Production permanent and extend the extraordinary powers of the Minister.[92] Fearful of another damaging confrontation between Howe and the Opposition, the Cabinet agreed that St. Laurent would guide the bill through, but after the first day of debate St. Laurent, who was prone to depression, absented himself.[93] Tory frontbencher Donald Fleming contended that the extension could make the minister "the virtual dictator of the economy".[92] With St. Laurent absent (or when present, silent), Howe took charge of the bill, and according to his biographers, Robert Bothwell and William Kilbourn, "utterly failed to perceive that the bill and his manner of defending it were a godsend to the opposition".[94] When Howe alluded to the Avro Arrow project and that he "was out on a limb for $30 million", which gave him "the shudders", the Opposition met the statement with jeers and cries of "What's a million?"[95] In early July, Howe left town for a long weekend, after asking St. Laurent and Minister of Finance Walter Harris to maintain his stand while he was gone, although he gave Harris the authority to do as he saw fit. Without informing Howe, St. Laurent contacted Drew, and the two men agreed that the minister's powers would expire in 1959 unless sooner renewed. The amended bill passed the Commons in Howe's absence, and when he returned, he furiously accused Harris of making a deal behind his back. However, when Howe was told that it had been the Prime Minister's decision, he accepted it.[96] Howe had earlier turned down an Opposition offer to agree to a three-year extension of his ministerial powers, saying "That would mean coming back to Parliament in three years, and I've more to do with my time than amusing Parliament."[97] The extension was allowed to expire in 1959, although by then, Howe had left office.[97]
The pipeline project was wracked with financing difficulties. The pipeline company wanted the Government to guarantee the loans needed to build what would become known as the
Howe was determined that the pipeline not be delayed, and proposed that the government advance money to the pipeline company to ensure construction in 1956. He emotionally pleaded with his Cabinet colleagues, who agreed with both to the proposal and to the use of rarely used
Bothwell and Kilbourn describe Howe's speech opening the
In mid-1956, Drew fell ill and resigned as Tory party leader. The leadership convention's choice of Diefenbaker as Drew's replacement prompted delight in some Liberal circles. Diefenbaker had long been a maverick within his party, was little known in eastern Canada, and many deemed him unelectable.[110] Although Defence Minister Claxton and the RCAF remained firm supporters of the Arrow program as costs continued to rise, in 1957 the Cabinet's defence committee proposed elimination of the Arrow, a decision that was to be reviewed after the forthcoming election and which was supported by Howe.[111]
1957 election
After the election was called in April 1957 for 10 June, Howe raised sufficient money to enable the Liberals to heavily outspend their opponents.[112] As there were few Liberal ministers from western Canada, Howe was called upon to make appearances throughout the region. He found that the Manitoba Farmers Union was organizing opposition to the Liberals; at some meetings Howe had difficulty getting heard at all. At other meetings, Howe engaged in well publicised conflicts with audience members. On 19 May in Morris, Manitoba, Howe told one man demanding to speak that when his own party held a meeting, he could ask all the questions he wanted; the man was the head of a local Liberal association. When asked why he did not answer Mackenzie's question, Howe replied, "Look here, my good man, when the election comes, why don't you go away and vote for the party you support? In fact, why don't you just go away?"[113][114] At another meeting, Howe was asked why he did not care about the farmers's economic plight. He responded, "Looks like you've been eating pretty well under a Liberal government" and poked the questioner in the midsection.[115]
Diefenbaker used the Pipeline Debate as a major theme in the campaign, one which he mentioned more than any other issue.[116] In Vancouver, he told the largest political crowd in the province since 1935, "I give this assurance to Canadians—that the government shall be the servant and not the master of the people ... The road of the Liberal party, unless it is stopped—and Howe has said, 'Who's going to stop us?'—will lead to the virtual extinction of parliamentary government. You will have the form, but the substance will be gone."[117]
Howe was opposed in his riding by CCF candidate
Later life, death, and legacy
Howe returned to Ottawa after his defeat, cleared his office, and soon sold his house there, moving to Montreal.
After some hesitancy that was likely caused by fears the newly empowered Tories would resent any approach to their longtime enemy, major corporations began to approach Howe and ask for him to serve on their boards of directors.[127] In 1958, Howe was made chancellor of Dalhousie University. On investigating the university's finances, he found that a professor's salary in 1958 had less buying power than when he had worked there. Howe urged increased salaries and building improvements to attract first-rate scholars to the university. He also accepted a number of honorary degrees from other universities.[128]
Howe had a longtime heart condition, and friends urged him to give up all boards that did not meet in Montreal. Before he could act on this suggestion, Howe suffered a heart attack and died at his home on 31 December 1960.[129][130]
Prime Minister Diefenbaker said after Howe died, "We often had strong differences but our personal relations remained most friendly at all times ... He gave his great ability, indomitable courage and energy to his country in a manner that has earned for him and will assure him of a large place in the history of Canada's war effort."[130] Opposition Leader Pearson stated, "He was a man who shirked no duty, faltered in no task, was daunted by no obstacle. He got things done, and they were good things for the country he served so well and so long."[130] At his memorial service, enemies and friend alike gathered. Among the eulogies delivered by friends and colleagues at Christ Church Cathedral in Montreal, it was remarked that Howe often stated proudly that he was "an American by birth but Canadian by choice".[131]
Howe had five children:[132]
- William (Bill) Hastings Howe[133]
- John Howe
- Barbara Stewart Marshall
- Mary Dodge
- Elisabeth Howe Stedman
Namesakes
After Howe's death, the C. D. Howe Memorial Foundation was created in his memory; the
References
Notes
- Ministry of Transport.[28]
- ^ The "dollar-a-year club was also derisively known as "Howe's Boys". The Order of the British Empire (OBE) was bestowed on 13 of "Howe's Boys" in 1946.[47]
Citations
- ^ "The War Economy and Controls: C. D. Howe". Canadian War Museum. Retrieved 6 August 2013.
- ^ a b Bothwell, Robert (2009). "Howe, Clarencne Decatur". In Cook, Ramsay; Bélanger, Réal (eds.). Dictionary of Canadian Biography. Vol. XVIII (1951–1960) (online ed.). University of Toronto Press. Retrieved 24 September 2023.
- ^ Harbron 1980, pp. 7–9.
- ^ Bothwell & Kilbourn 1979, pp. 22–23.
- ^ Harbron 1980, pp. 13, 15.
- ^ Roberts 1957, p. 18.
- ^ Bothwell & Kilbourn 1979, p. 26.
- ^ Bothwell & Kilbourn 1979, p. 27.
- ^ Bothwell & Kilbourn 1979, p. 29.
- ^ Roberts 1957, p. 19.
- ^ Bothwell & Kilbourn 1979, p. 30.
- ^ Bothwell & Kilbourn 1979, pp. 32–33.
- ^ Harbron 1980, pp. 16–18.
- ^ Bothwell & Kilbourn 1979, pp. 37–38.
- ^ Roberts 1957, pp. 19–20.
- ^ Bothwell & Kilbourn 1979, p. 41.
- ^ Bothwell & Kilbourn 1979, p. 42.
- ^ Bothwell & Kilbourn 1979, pp. 42–43.
- ^ Bothwell & Kilbourn 1979, pp. 46–48.
- ^ Roberts 1957, p. 17.
- ^ Bothwell & Kilbourn 1979, pp. 50–51.
- ^ Harbron 1980, pp. 23–24.
- ^ Bothwell & Kilbourn 1979, p. 55.
- ^ a b Roberts 1957, p. 10.
- ^ Bothwell & Kilbourn 1979, p. 62.
- ^ Harbron 1980, p. 24.
- ^ Bothwell & Kilbourn 1979, p. 66.
- ^ Bothwell & Kilbourn 1979, p. 81.
- ^ Roberts 1957, pp. 24–26.
- ^ Roberts 1957, pp. 27–32.
- ^ Roberts 1957, p. 30.
- ^ Smith 1986, pp. 33–34.
- ^ a b Harbron 1980, p. 30.
- ^ Render 1999, pp. 250–251.
- ^ Harbron 1980, pp. 35–36.
- ^ Roberts 1957, pp. 49–50.
- ^ Bothwell & Kilbourn 1979, p. 113.
- ^ Stevenson 1987, p. 198.
- ^ CBC News, 14 May 2004[full citation needed]
- ^ Roberts 1957, pp. 63–64.
- ^ Roberts 1957, pp. 72–73.
- ^ Bliss 2004, p. 165.
- ^ Bothwell & Kilbourn 1979, pp. 126–127.
- ^ Bothwell & Kilbourn 1979, pp. 128–129.
- ^ Harbron 1980, p. 37.
- ^ Roberts 1957, p. 80.
- ^ a b Stewart 1998, p. 43.
- ^ Roberts 1957, p. 85.
- ^ Roberts 1957, pp. 82–83.
- ^ Harbron 1980, pp. 44–45.
- ^ Stewart 1991, pp. 23–24.
- ^ Stewart 1991, p. 24.
- ^ Stewart 1991, p. 14.
- ^ Roberts 1957, p. 87.
- ^ Roberts 1957, p. 119.
- ^ Roberts 1957, p. 155.
- ^ a b Bothwell & Kilbourn 1979, p. 240.
- ^ Smith 1995, p. 165.
- ^ Harbron 1980, p. 48.
- ^ Thomson 1967, p. 141.
- ^ Roberts 1957, pp. 148–149.
- ^ Bothwell & Kilbourn 1979, p. 198.
- ^ Bothwell & Kilbourn 1979, pp. 202–203.
- ^ Bothwell & Kilbourn 1979, p. 206.
- ^ Roberts 1957, p. 153.
- ^ Roberts 1957, p. 151.
- ^ Roberts 1957, p. 158.
- ^ Stewart 1998, pp. 45–46.
- ^ Bothwell & Kilbourn 1979, p. 190.
- ^ Bothwell & Kilbourn 1979, pp. 209–211.
- ^ Thomson 1967, p. 204.
- ^ Thomson 1967, pp. 210–211.
- ^ Thomson 1967, p. 215.
- ^ Thomson 1967, p. 225.
- ^ Bothwell & Kilbourn 1979, pp. 218–219.
- ^ Roberts 1957, p. 163.
- ^ Smith 1995, pp. 167–168.
- ^ a b Bothwell & Kilbourn 1979, pp. 242–243.
- ^ Bothwell & Kilbourn 1979, p. 259.
- ^ Bliss 2004, p. 178.
- ^ Bothwell & Kilbourn 1979, p. 253.
- ^ Bothwell & Kilbourn 1979, p. 255.
- ^ Fraser 1967, p. 127.
- ^ Roberts 1957, pp. 179–181.
- ^ Roberts 1957, p. 183.
- ^ Bothwell & Kilbourn 1979, p. 266.
- ^ Newman 1963, p. 36.
- ^ Bliss 2004, pp. 181–182.
- ^ Bothwell & Kilbourn 1979, pp. 278–281.
- ^ Bliss 1994, pp. 527–528.
- ^ Bothwell & Kilbourn 1979, pp. 283–285.
- ^ a b Thomson 1967, pp. 396–397.
- ^ Bothwell & Kilbourn 1979, p. 299.
- ^ Bothwell & Kilbourn 1979, pp. 299–300.
- ^ Bothwell & Kilbourn 1979, p. 301.
- ^ Thomson 1967, pp. 401–403.
- ^ a b Newman 1963, p. 37.
- ^ a b Harbron 1980, pp. 55–56.
- ^ Thomson 1967, p. 424.
- ^ Bothwell & Kilbourn 1979, p. 312.
- ^ Thomson 1967, p. 420.
- ^ Bothwell & Kilbourn 1979, p. 316.
- ^ Bothwell & Kilbourn 1979, p. 309.
- ^ a b Bothwell & Kilbourn 1979, pp. 309–311.
- ^ Bliss 1994, p. 483.
- ^ Roberts 1957, pp. 218–220.
- ^ Thomson 1967, pp. 434–436.
- ^ Harbron 1980, p. 56.
- ^ Bothwell & Kilbourn 1979, p. 317.
- ^ Thomson 1967, p. 493.
- ^ Bothwell & Kilbourn 1979, pp. 266–267.
- ^ Bothwell & Kilbourn 1979, p. 327.
- ^ Bothwell & Kilbourn 1979, pp. 324–325.
- ^ Newman 1963, p. 55.
- ^ Bothwell & Kilbourn 1979, p. 325.
- ^ Meisel 1962, p. 59.
- ^ The Vancouver Sun & 24 May 1957.
- ^ Bothwell & Kilbourn 1979, p. 328.
- ^ a b Bothwell & Kilbourn 1979, pp. 328–329.
- ^ Bothwell & Kilbourn 1979, p. 329.
- ^ Bothwell & Kilbourn 1979, p. 330.
- ^ Roberts 1957, pp. 7–8.
- ^ Harbron 1980, p. 62.
- ^ Thomson 1967, pp. 525–526.
- ^ Bothwell & Kilbourn 1979, pp. 336–338.
- ^ Bothwell & Kilbourn 1979, p. 338.
- ^ Bothwell & Kilbourn 1979, pp. 338–339.
- ^ Bothwell & Kilbourn 1979, pp. 342–344.
- ^ Bothwell & Kilbourn 1979, pp. 346–347.
- ^ a b c Ottawa Citizen & 3 January 1961.
- ^ Pigott 2001, p. 417.
- ^ [1] [dead link]
- ^ "Hon. C. D. Howe's son marries Susan Ann Kenny. Of wide interest was the marriage on Monday of Miss Susan Ann Kenny. Daughter of Mr. And MRS. R. M. Ken(...)".
- ^ C. D. Howe Institute, History.
- ^ C.D. Howe Award.
- ^ Oswald 1999, p. 99.
- ^ Bothwell & Kilbourn 1979, p. 349.
- ^ "Home". Cdhowe.lakeheadsschools.ca. Retrieved 23 July 2022.
- ^ Maginley & Collin 2001, p. 146.
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- Stewart, Greig (1998). Arrow Through the Heart: The Life and Times of Crawford Gordon and the Avro Arrow. Toronto: McGraw-Hill-Ryerson. ISBN 978-0-07-560102-9.
- Stewart, Greig (1991). Shutting Down the National Dream: A.V. Roe and the Tragedy of the Avro Arrow. Toronto: McGraw-Hill-Ryerson. ISBN 978-0-07-551119-9.
- Thomson, Dale C. (1967). Louis St. Laurent: Canadian. Toronto: Macmillan of Canada.
Online sources
- "History: CBC News in depth: Air Canada". CBC News. 14 May 2004. Retrieved 13 December 2010.
- Gould, Tom (24 May 1957). "Diefenbaker draws 6,000 to meeting". The Vancouver Sun. p. 2.
- "Funeral Tomorrow: C. D. Howe Dies, Cabinet Minister 22 Years". Ottawa Citizen. CP. 3 January 1961. p. 9. Retrieved 14 December 2010.
- "Institute History". C. D. Howe Institute. Retrieved 26 March 2012.
- "C. D. Howe Award". Canadian Aeronautics and Space Institute. Archived from the original on 12 April 2012. Retrieved 26 March 2012.
Archives
There is a C.D. Howe fonds at Library and Archives Canada.
External links
- C. D. Howe – Parliament of Canada biography
- Canada's Aviation Hall of Fame
- Newspaper clippings about C. D. Howe in the 20th Century Press Archives of the ZBW
- C. D. Howe at Find a Grave