COVID-19 pandemic

Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.

Ongoing global pandemic of coronavirus disease 2019

It has been suggested that Endemic COVID-19 be merged into this article. (Discuss) Proposed since December 2022.

COVID-19 pandemic
Confirmed deaths per 100,000 population as of 18 January 2023
Cases per capita Cumulative percentage of population infected as of 19 March 2022   >10%   3–10%   1–3%   0.3–1%   0.1–0.3%   0.03–0.1%   0–0.03%   None or no data
Disease	Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS‑CoV‑2)
Source	Bats,[1] likely indirectly[2]
Location	Worldwide
Index case	Wuhan, China 30°37′11″N 114°15′28″E / 30.61972°N 114.25778°E / 30.61972; 114.25778
Date	17 November 2019 (2019-11-17) – present (3 years and 4 months)
Confirmed cases	676,609,955[3]
Deaths	6,881,955[3] (reported) 16.6–28.3 million[4] (estimated)
Fatality rate	1.02%[3]

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COVID-19 portal

v t e

The COVID-19 pandemic, also known as the coronavirus pandemic, is an ongoing global

deadliest in history

.

dry cough, and fatigue. Severe illness is more likely in elderly patients and those with certain underlying medical conditions. COVID-19 transmits when people breathe in air contaminated by droplets and small airborne particles containing the virus. The risk of breathing these in is highest when people are in close proximity, but they can be inhaled over longer distances, particularly indoors. Transmission can also occur if contaminated fluids reach the eyes, nose, or mouth, or, more rarely, through contaminated surfaces. Infected individuals are typically contagious for 10 days and can spread the virus even if they do not develop symptoms. Mutations have produced many strains (variants) with varying degrees of infectivity and virulence.^[5][6]

The

control and eventual end

of the pandemic.

The pandemic has triggered severe

supply chain disruptions. Reduced human activity led to an unprecedented decrease in pollution. Educational institutions and public areas were partially or fully closed in many jurisdictions, and many events were cancelled or postponed during 2020 and 2021. Misinformation has circulated through social media and mass media, and political tensions have intensified. The pandemic has raised issues of racial and geographic discrimination, health equity, and the balance between public health

imperatives and individual rights.

While the WHO still considers the pandemic active,[10] some countries are transitioning their public health approach towards regarding SARS-CoV-2 as an endemic virus.^[11][12]

Etymology

Chinese medics in Huanggang

, Hubei, in 2020.

The pandemic is known by several names. It is sometimes referred to as the "coronavirus pandemic"

human coronaviruses that have caused epidemics and outbreaks (e.g. SARS).^[14]

During the initial outbreak in Wuhan, the virus and disease were commonly referred to as "coronavirus", "Wuhan coronavirus",^[15] "the coronavirus outbreak" and the "Wuhan coronavirus outbreak",^[16] with the disease sometimes called "Wuhan pneumonia".^[17][18] In January 2020, the WHO recommended 2019-nCoV^[19] and 2019-nCoV acute respiratory disease^[20] as interim names for the virus and disease per 2015 international guidelines against using geographical locations (e.g. Wuhan, China), animal species, or groups of people in disease and virus names in part to prevent social stigma.^[21] WHO finalized the official names COVID-19 and SARS-CoV-2 on 11 February 2020.^[22] Tedros Adhanom Ghebreyesus explained: CO for corona, VI for virus, D for disease and 19 for when the outbreak was first identified (31 December 2019).^[23] WHO additionally uses "the COVID-19 virus" and "the virus responsible for COVID-19" in public communications.^[22]

WHO names variants of concern and variants of interest using Greek letters. The initial practice of naming them according to where the variants were identified (e.g. Delta began as the "Indian variant") is no longer common.^[24] A more systematic naming scheme reflects the variant's PANGO lineage (e.g., Omicron's lineage is B.1.1.529) and is used for other variants.^[25][26][27]

Epidemiology

For country-level data, see:

COVID-19 pandemic by country and territory

Cases 676,609,955 Deaths 6,881,955 As of 10 March 2023[3] Africa Asia Europe North America Oceania South America Antarctica

Background

Main articles: Investigations into the origin of COVID-19 and COVID-19 pandemic in Hubei

SARS-CoV-2 is a virus closely related to

2019-2020 COVID-19 outbreak in mainland China) started in Wuhan, Hubei, China, in November 2019. Many early cases were linked to people who had visited the Huanan Seafood Wholesale Market there,^[32][33][34] but it is possible that human-to-human transmission began earlier.^[35][36]

The scientific consensus is that the virus is most likely of a

zoonotic origin, from bats or another closely-related mammal.^[35][37][38] Controversies about the origins of the virus heightened geopolitical divisions, notably between the United States and China.^[39]

The earliest known infected person fell ill on 1 December 2019. That individual did not have a connection with the later wet market cluster.^[40][41] However, an earlier case may have occurred on 17 November.^[42] Two-thirds of the initial case cluster were linked with the market.^[43][44][45] Molecular clock analysis suggests that the index case is likely to have been infected between mid-October and mid-November 2019.^[46][47]

Cases

Main articles: COVID-19 pandemic by country and territory and COVID-19 pandemic cases

Official "case" counts refer to the number of people who have been tested for COVID-19 and whose test has been confirmed positive according to official protocols whether or not they experienced symptomatic disease.^[48][49] Due to the effect of sampling bias, studies which obtain a more accurate number by extrapolating from a random sample have consistently found that total infections considerably exceed the reported case counts.^[50][51] Many countries, early on, had official policies to not test those with only mild symptoms.^[52][53] The strongest risk factors for severe illness are obesity, complications of diabetes, anxiety disorders, and the total number of conditions.^[54]

In early 2020, a meta-analysis of self-reported cases in China by age indicated that a relatively low proportion of cases occurred in individuals under 20.^[55] It was not clear whether this was because young people were less likely to be infected, or less likely to develop symptoms and be tested.^[56] A retrospective cohort study in China found that children and adults were just as likely to be infected.^[57]

Among more thorough studies,

blood donors in the Netherlands, found rates of positive antibody tests that indicated more infections than reported.^[59][60] Seroprevalence-based estimates are conservative as some studies show that persons with mild symptoms do not have detectable antibodies.^[61]

Initial estimates of the basic reproduction number (R₀) for COVID-19 in January 2020 were between 1.4 and 2.5,^[62] but a subsequent analysis claimed that it may be about 5.7 (with a 95 per cent confidence interval of 3.8 to 8.9).^[63]

In December 2021, the number of cases continued to climb due to several factors, including new COVID-19 variants. As of that 28 December, 282,790,822 individuals worldwide had been confirmed as infected.^[64] As of 14 April 2022^[update], over 500 million cases were confirmed globally.^[65] Most cases are unconfirmed, with the Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation estimating the true number of cases as of early 2022 to be in the billions.^[66][67]

Semi-log plot of weekly new cases of COVID-19 in the world and the current top six countries (mean with deaths)

Deaths

Main articles: COVID-19 pandemic deaths and COVID-19 pandemic death rates by country

Further information: List of deaths due to COVID-19

Deceased in a refrigerated "mobile morgue" outside a hospital in Hackensack, New Jersey

, U.S., in April 2020.

Gravediggers bury the body of a man suspected of having died of COVID-19 in the cemetery of Vila Alpina, east side of São Paulo

, in April 2020.

Global excess and reported COVID-19 deaths and deaths per 100,000 according to the WHO study^[68]

As of 10 March 2023, more than 6.88 million[3] deaths had been attributed to COVID-19. The first confirmed death was in Wuhan on 9 January 2020.^[69] These numbers vary by region and over time, influenced by testing volume, healthcare system quality, treatment options, government response,^[70] time since the initial outbreak, and population characteristics, such as age, sex, and overall health.^[71]

Multiple measures are used to quantify mortality.^[72] Official death counts typically include people who died after testing positive. Such counts exclude deaths without a test.^[73] Conversely, deaths of people who died from underlying conditions following a positive test may be included.^[74] Countries such as Belgium include deaths from suspected cases, including those without a test, thereby increasing counts.^[75]

Official death counts have been claimed to underreport the actual death toll, because

excess mortality (the number of deaths in a period compared to a long-term average) data show an increase in deaths that is not explained by COVID-19 deaths alone.^[76] Using such data, estimates of the true number of deaths from COVID-19 worldwide have included a range from 16.5 to 26.8 million (≈20.2 million) by 3 February 2023 by The Economist,^[77][76] as well as over 18.5 million by 1 April 2023 by the Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation^[78] and ≈18.2 million (earlier) deaths between 1 January 2020, and 31 December 2021, by a comprehensive international study.^[79] Such deaths include deaths due to healthcare capacity constraints and priorities, as well as reluctance to seek care (to avoid possible infection).^[80] Further research may help distinguish the proportions directly caused by COVID-19 from those caused by indirect consequences of the pandemic.^[79]

In May 2022, the WHO estimated the number of excess deaths by the end of 2021 to be 14.9 million compared to 5.4 million reported COVID-19 deaths, with the majority of the unreported 9.5 million deaths believed to be direct deaths due the virus, rather than indirect deaths. Some deaths were because people with other conditions could not access medical services.^[81][82]

A December 2022

WHO study estimated excess deaths from the pandemic during 2020 and 2021, again concluding ≈14.8 million excess early deaths occurred, reaffirming and detailing their prior calculations from May as well as updating them, addressing criticisms. These numbers do not include measures like years of potential life lost and may make the pandemic 2021's leading cause of death.^[83][84][68]

The time between symptom onset and death ranges from 6 to 41 days, typically about 14 days.[85] Mortality rates increase as a function of age. People at the greatest mortality risk are the elderly and those with underlying conditions.^[86][87]

• 

  Semi-log plot of weekly deaths due to COVID-19 in the world and top six current countries (mean with cases)

• 

  Excess deaths relative to expected deaths (the patterns indicate the quality of the all-cause mortality data that were available for each respective country)^[68]

• 

  Excess deaths relative to expected deaths (global and WHO region)^[68]

• 

  The 25 countries with the highest total estimated COVID-19 pandemic excess deaths between January 2020 and December 2021^[68]

• 

  The 25 countries with the highest mean P-scores (excess deaths relative to expected deaths)^[68]

Infection fatality ratio (IFR)

IFR estimate per age group^[88]

Age group	IFR
0–34	0.004%
35–44	0.068%
45–54	0.23%
55–64	0.75%
65–74	2.5%
75–84	8.5%
85 +	28.3%

The

infection fatality ratio (IFR) is the cumulative number of deaths attributed to the disease divided by the cumulative number of infected individuals (including asymptomatic and undiagnosed infections and excluding vaccinated infected individuals).^[89][90][91] It is expressed in percentage points (not as a decimal).^[92] Other studies refer to this metric as the 'infection fatality risk'.^[93][94]

In November 2020, a review article in Nature reported estimates of population-weighted IFRs for various countries, excluding deaths in elderly care facilities, and found a median range of 0.24% to 1.49%.^[95]

IFRs rise as a function of age (from 0.002% at age 10 and 0.01% at age 25, to 0.4% at age 55, 1.4% at age 65, 4.6% at age 75, and 15% at age 85). These rates vary by a factor of ≈10,000 across the age groups.

seasonal influenza.^[88]

In December 2020, a systematic review and meta-analysis estimated that population-weighted IFR was 0.5% to 1% in some countries (France, Netherlands, New Zealand, and Portugal), 1% to 2% in other countries (Australia, England, Lithuania, and Spain), and about 2.5% in Italy. This study reported that most of the differences reflected corresponding differences in the population's age structure and the age-specific pattern of infections.[88]

Case fatality ratio (CFR)

Another metric in assessing death rate is the case fatality ratio (CFR),^[a] which is the ratio of deaths to diagnoses. This metric can be misleading because of the delay between symptom onset and death and because testing focuses on symptomatic individuals.^[96]

Based on Johns Hopkins University statistics, the global CFR is 1.02 percent (6,881,955 deaths for 676,609,955 cases) as of 10 March 2023.^[3] The number varies by region and has generally declined over time.^[97]

Disease

Main article: COVID-19

Variants

Main article: Variants of SARS-CoV-2

Several variants have been named by WHO and labelled as a

immune escape ability may allow it to spread via breakthrough infections, which in turn may allow it to coexist with Delta, which more often infects the unvaccinated.^[101]

World Health Organization video describing how variants proliferate in unvaccinated areas.

Variants^[102][103]

Name	Lineage	Detected	Countries	Priority
Alpha	B.1.1.7	UK	190	VoC
Beta	B.1.351	South Africa	140	VoC
Delta	B.1.617.2	India	170	VoC
Gamma	P.1	Brazil	90	VoC
Lambda	C.37	Peru	30	VoI
Mu	B.1.621	Colombia	57	VoI
Omicron	B.1.1.529	Botswana	149	VoC

Signs and symptoms

Main article: Symptoms of COVID-19

Symptoms

of COVID-19

Symptoms of COVID-19 are variable, ranging from mild symptoms to severe illness.

breathing difficulties.^[106] People with the same infection may have different symptoms, and their symptoms may change over time. Three common clusters of symptoms have been identified: one respiratory symptom cluster with cough, sputum, shortness of breath, and fever; a musculoskeletal symptom cluster with muscle and joint pain, headache, and fatigue; a cluster of digestive symptoms with abdominal pain, vomiting, and diarrhoea.^[107] In people without prior ear, nose, and throat disorders, loss of taste combined with loss of smell is associated with COVID-19 and is reported in as many as 88% of cases.^{[108][109][110]}

Transmission

Main article: Transmission of COVID-19

The disease is mainly transmitted via the respiratory route when people inhale droplets and small airborne particles (that form an aerosol) that infected people exhale as they breathe, talk, cough, sneeze, or sing.^{[111][112][113][114]} Infected people are more likely to transmit COVID-19 when they are physically close. However, infection can occur over longer distances, particularly indoors.^[111][115]

Cause

Main article:

Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2

virion

SARS‑CoV‑2 belongs to the broad family of viruses known as

positive-sense single-stranded RNA (+ssRNA) virus, with a single linear RNA segment. Coronaviruses infect humans, other mammals, including livestock and companion animals, and avian species.^[117]

Human coronaviruses are capable of causing illnesses ranging from the

SARS-CoV.^[118]

Diagnosis

Main article: COVID-19 § Diagnosis

A nurse at McMurdo Station

sets up the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) testing equipment, in September 2020.

The standard methods of testing for presence of SARS-CoV-2 are nucleic acid tests,^[119] which detects the presence of viral RNA fragments.^[120] As these tests detect RNA but not infectious virus, its "ability to determine duration of infectivity of patients is limited."^[121] The test is typically done on respiratory samples obtained by a nasopharyngeal swab; however, a nasal swab or sputum sample may also be used.^[122][123] The WHO has published several testing protocols for the disease.^[124]

Prevention

Further information: COVID-19 § Prevention, Face masks during the COVID-19 pandemic, and Social distancing measures related to the COVID-19 pandemic

Preventive measures to reduce the chances of infection include getting vaccinated, staying at home or spending more time outdoors, avoiding crowded places, keeping distance from others, wearing a mask in public, ventilating indoor spaces, managing potential exposure durations, washing hands with soap and water often and for at least twenty seconds, practicing good respiratory hygiene, and avoiding touching the eyes, nose, or mouth with unwashed hands.^[125][126]

Those diagnosed with COVID-19 or who believe they may be infected are advised by the CDC to stay home except to get medical care, call ahead before visiting a healthcare provider, wear a face mask before entering the healthcare provider's office and when in any room or vehicle with another person, cover coughs and sneezes with a tissue, regularly wash hands with soap and water and avoid sharing personal household items.^[127][128]

Vaccines

Main article: COVID-19 vaccine

See also: History of COVID-19 vaccine development and Deployment of COVID-19 vaccines

A doctor at Walter Reed National Military Medical Center

receiving a COVID-19 vaccination

A COVID-19

vaccine platforms during early 2020.^[129] The initial focus of SARS-CoV-2 vaccines was on preventing symptomatic, often severe illness.^[130] On 10 January 2020, the SARS-CoV-2 genetic sequence data was shared through GISAID, and by 19 March, the global pharmaceutical industry announced a major commitment to address COVID-19.^[131] The COVID-19 vaccines are widely credited for their role in reducing the severity and death caused by COVID-19.^[132][133]

As of late-December 2021, more than 4.49 billion people had received one or more doses[134] (8+ billion in total) in over 197 countries. The Oxford-AstraZeneca vaccine was the most widely used.^[135]

On 8 November 2022, Novavax's COVID-19 vaccine booster was authorized for use in adults in the United Kingdom.^[136] On 12 November 2022, the WHO released its Global Vaccine Market Report. The report indicated that "inequitable distribution is not unique to COVID-19 vaccines"; countries that are not economically strong struggle to obtain vaccines.^[137]

On 14 November 2022, the first inhalable vaccine was introduced, developed by Chinese biopharmaceutical company CanSino Biologics, in the city of Shanghai, China.^[138]

Treatment

Main article: Treatment and management of COVID-19

A critically ill patient receiving invasive ventilation in the intensive care unit of the Heart Institute, University of São Paulo in July 2020. Due to a shortage of mechanical ventilators, a bridge ventilator is being used to automatically actuate a bag valve mask

.

For the first two years of the pandemic, no specific and effective treatment or cure was available.

Paxlovid (nirmatrelvir plus AIDS drug ritonavir), to treat adult patients.^[141] FDA later gave it an EUA.^[142]

Most cases of COVID-19 are mild. In these, supportive care includes medication such as

NSAIDs to relieve symptoms (fever,^[143] body aches, cough), adequate intake of oral fluids and rest.^[140][144] Good personal hygiene and a healthy diet are also recommended.^[145]

Noninvasive ventilation and, ultimately, admission to an intensive care unit for mechanical ventilation may be required to support breathing.^[148] Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO) has been used to address the issue of respiratory failure.^[149][150]

Existing drugs such as hydroxychloroquine, lopinavir/ritonavir, ivermectin and so-called early treatment are not recommended by US or European health authorities, as there is no good evidence they have any useful effect.^{[139][151][152]} The antiviral remdesivir is available in the US, Canada, Australia, and several other countries, with varying restrictions; however, it is not recommended for use with mechanical ventilation, and is discouraged altogether by the World Health Organization (WHO),^[153] due to limited evidence of its efficacy.^[139]

Prognosis

Further information: COVID-19 § Prognosis, and Long COVID

The severity of COVID-19 varies. The disease may take a mild course with few or no symptoms, resembling other common upper respiratory diseases such as the

prothrombin time and elevated C-reactive protein levels on admission to the hospital are associated with severe course of COVID-19 and with a transfer to intensive care units (ICU).^[155][156]

Between 5% and 50% of COVID-19 patients experience

cognitive dysfunction.^{[5][160][161][162]}

Strategies

Main article: Public health mitigation of COVID-19

raising the line) such as by increasing bed count, personnel, and equipment, help to meet increased demand.^[165]

Many countries attempted to slow or stop the spread of COVID-19 by recommending, mandating or prohibiting behaviour changes, while others relied primarily on providing information. Measures ranged from public advisories to stringent lockdowns. Outbreak control strategies are divided into elimination and mitigation. Experts differentiate between elimination strategies (known as "

acquired immunity phase through natural and vaccine-induced immunity.^[168]

Nature reported in 2021 that 90 per cent of immunologists who responded to a survey "think that the coronavirus will become endemic".^[169]

Containment

Further information: Zero-COVID

Containment is undertaken to stop an outbreak from spreading into the general population. Infected individuals are isolated while they are infectious. The people they have interacted with are contacted and isolated for long enough to ensure that they are either not infected or no longer contagious. Screening is the starting point for containment. Screening is done by checking for symptoms to identify infected individuals, who can then be isolated or offered treatment.

mitigation software to stop community transmission of COVID-19 as soon as it is detected, with the goal of getting the area back to zero detected infections and resuming normal economic and social activities.^[166][171] Successful containment or suppression reduces Rt to less than 1.^[172]

Mitigation

Further information: Flattening the curve

Should containment fail, efforts focus on mitigation: measures taken to slow the spread and limit its effects on the healthcare system and society. Successful mitigation delays and decreases the epidemic peak, known as "flattening the epidemic curve".^[163] This decreases the risk of overwhelming health services and provides more time for developing vaccines and treatments.^[163] Individual behaviour changed in many jurisdictions. Many people worked from home instead of at their traditional workplaces.^[173]

Non-pharmaceutical interventions

The CDC and WHO advise that masks (such as worn here by Taiwanese president Tsai Ing-wen

) reduce the spread of SARS-CoV-2.

Non-pharmaceutical interventions that may reduce spread include personal actions such as wearing face masks, self-quarantine, and hand hygiene; community measures aimed at reducing interpersonal contacts such as closing workplaces and schools and cancelling large gatherings; community engagement to encourage acceptance and participation in such interventions; as well as environmental measures such as surface cleaning.^[174]

Other measures

More drastic actions, such as quarantining entire populations and strict travel bans have been attempted in various jurisdictions.^[175] China and Australia's lockdowns have been the most strict. New Zealand implemented the most severe travel restrictions. South Korea introduced mass screening and localised quarantines, and issued alerts on the movements of infected individuals. Singapore provided financial support, quarantined, and imposed large fines for those who broke quarantine.^[176]

Contact tracing

See also:

Use and development of software for COVID-19 pandemic mitigation and Public health mitigation of COVID-19 § Information technology

Contact tracing attempts to identify recent contacts of newly infected individuals, and to screen them for infection; the traditional approach is to request a list of contacts from infectees, and then telephone or visit the contacts.^[177] Contact tracing was widely used during the Western African Ebola virus epidemic in 2014.^[178]

Another approach is to collect location data from mobile devices to identify those who have come in significant contact with infectees, which prompted privacy concerns.^[179] On 10 April 2020, Google and Apple announced an initiative for privacy-preserving contact tracing.^[180][181] In Europe and in the US, Palantir Technologies initially provided COVID-19 tracking services.^[182]

Health care

Further information: Flattening the curve, list of countries by hospital beds, and Shortages related to the COVID-19 pandemic

WHO described increasing capacity and adapting healthcare as a fundamental mitigation.^[183] The ECDC and WHO's European regional office issued guidelines for hospitals and primary healthcare services for shifting resources at multiple levels, including focusing laboratory services towards testing, cancelling elective procedures, separating and isolating patients, and increasing intensive care capabilities by training personnel and increasing ventilators and beds.^[183][184] The pandemic drove widespread adoption of telehealth.^[185]

Improvised manufacturing

A patient in Ukraine in 2020 wearing a scuba mask in the absence of artificial ventilation

.

Due to capacity supply chains limitations, some manufacturers began 3D printing material such as nasal swabs and ventilator parts.^[186][187] In one example, an Italian startup received legal threats due to alleged patent infringement after reverse-engineering and printing one hundred requested ventilator valves overnight.^[188] Individuals and groups of makers created and shared open source designs, and manufacturing devices using locally sourced materials, sewing, and 3D printing. Millions of face shields, protective gowns, and masks were made. Other ad hoc medical supplies included shoe covers, surgical caps, powered air-purifying respirators, and hand sanitizer. Novel devices were created such as ear savers, non-invasive ventilation helmets, and ventilator splitters.^[189]

Herd immunity

In July 2021, several experts expressed concern that achieving herd immunity may not be possible because Delta can transmit among vaccinated individuals.^[190] CDC published data showing that vaccinated people could transmit Delta, something officials believed was less likely with other variants. Consequently, WHO and CDC encouraged vaccinated people to continue with non-pharmaceutical interventions such as masking, social distancing, and quarantining if exposed.^[191]

History

For a chronological guide, see Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic.

Further information: Pandemic prevention and Pandemic predictions and preparations prior to the COVID-19 pandemic

2019

Main article: Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in 2019

Map of Wuhan, China

The

outbreak was discovered in Wuhan in November 2019. It is possible that human-to-human transmission was happening before the discovery.^[35][36] Based on a retrospective analysis starting from December 2019, the number of cases in Hubei gradually increased, reaching 60 by 20 December and at least 266 by 31 December.^[192]

A pneumonia cluster was observed on 26 December and treated by Doctor Zhang Jixian. She informed the Wuhan Jianghan CDC on 27 December.^[193] Vision Medicals reported the discovery of a novel coronavirus to the China CDC (CCDC) on 28 December.^[194][195]

On 30 December, a test report from CapitalBio Medlab addressed to Wuhan Central Hospital reported an erroneous positive result for SARS, causing doctors there to alert authorities. Eight of those doctors, including Li Wenliang (who was also punished on 3 January),^[196] were later admonished by the police for spreading false rumours; and Ai Fen was reprimanded.^[197] That evening, Wuhan Municipal Health Commission (WMHC) issued a notice about "the treatment of pneumonia of unknown cause".^[198] The next day, WMHC made the announcement public, confirming 27 cases^[199][200]—enough to trigger an investigation.^[201]

On 31 December, the WHO office in China was informed of cases of the pneumonia cases^[202][199] and immediately launched an investigation.^[201]

Official Chinese sources claimed that the early cases were mostly linked to the Huanan Seafood Wholesale Market, which also sold live animals.^[203] However, in May 2020, CCDC director George Gao indicated the market was not the origin (animal samples had tested negative).^[204]

2020

Timelines of the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020 by month: January, February, March, April, May, June, July, August, September, October, November, December

A highway sign discouraging travel in Toronto

in March 2020

On 11 January, WHO was notified by the Chinese National Health Commission that the outbreak was associated with exposures in the market, and that China had identified a new type of coronavirus, which it isolated on 7 January.[202]

Initially, the number of cases doubled approximately every seven and a half days.^[205] In early and mid-January, the virus spread to other Chinese provinces, helped by the Chinese New Year migration. Wuhan was a transport hub and major rail interchange.^[206] On 10 January, the virus's genome was shared through GISAID.^[207] A retrospective study published in March found that 6,174 people had reported symptoms by 20 January.^[208] A 24 January report indicated human transmission, recommended personal protective equipment for health workers, and advocated testing, given the outbreak's "pandemic potential".^[43][209] On 31 January the first published modelling study warned of inevitable "independent self-sustaining outbreaks in major cities globally" and called for "large-scale public health interventions."^[210]

On 30 January, 7,818 infections had been confirmed, leading WHO to declare the outbreak a

Public Health Emergency of International Concern (PHEIC).^[211][212] On 11 March, WHO elevated it to a pandemic.^[213][214]

By 31 January, Italy had its first confirmed infections, in two tourists from China.[215] On 19 March, Italy overtook China as the country with the most reported deaths.^[216] By 26 March, the United States had overtaken China and Italy as the country with the highest number of confirmed infections.^[217] Genomic analysis indicated that the majority of New York's confirmed infections came from Europe, rather than directly from Asia.^[218] Testing of prior samples revealed a person who was infected in France on 27 December 2019^[219][220] and a person in the United States who died from the disease on 6 February.^[221]

An exhausted anesthesiologist physician in Pesaro

, Italy, March 2020

In October, WHO reported that one in ten people around the world may have been infected, or 780 million people, while only 35 million infections had been confirmed.[222]

On 9 November, Pfizer released trial results for a candidate vaccine, showing a 90 per cent effectiveness against infection.^[223] That day, Novavax entered an FDA Fast Track application for their vaccine.^[224]

On 14 December,

Alpha, showed changes to the spike protein that could be more infectious. As of 13 December, 1,108 infections had been confirmed.^[225]

On 4 February 2020, US Secretary of Health and Human Services Alex Azar waived liability for vaccine manufacturers.^[226]

2021

Timelines of the COVID-19 pandemic in 2021 by month: January, February, March, April, May, June, July, August, September, October, November, December

On 2 January, the

Gamma variant was first identified in Japanese travellers returning from Brazil.^[228] On 29 January, it was reported that the Novavax vaccine was 49 per cent effective against the Beta variant in a clinical trial in South Africa.^[229][230] The CoronaVac vaccine was reported to be 50.4 per cent effective in a Brazil clinical trial.^[231]

A temporary hospital for COVID-19 patients in Brazil in March 2021

On 12 March, several countries stopped using the Oxford-AstraZeneca COVID-19 vaccine due to blood clotting problems, specifically cerebral venous sinus thrombosis (CVST).^[232] On 20 March, the WHO and European Medicines Agency found no link to thrombus, leading several countries to resume the vaccine.^[233] In March WHO reported that an animal host was the most likely origin, without ruling out other possibilities.^[2][34] The Delta variant was first identified in India. In mid-April, the variant was first detected in the UK and two months later it had metastasized into a third wave there, forcing the government to delay reopening that was originally scheduled for June.^[234]

On 10 November, Germany advised against the Moderna vaccine for people under 30.^[235] On 24 November, the Omicron variant was detected in South Africa; a few days later the World Health Organization declared it a VoC (variant of concern).^[236] The new variant is more infectious than the Delta variant.^[237]

2022

TEM of an Omicron variant coronavirus

Timelines of the COVID-19 pandemic in 2022 by month: January, February, March, April, May, June, July, August, September, October, November, December

On 1 January, Europe passed 100 million cases amidst a surge in the Omicron variant.^[238] Later that month on 14 January, the World Health Organization recommended two new treatments, Baricitinib, and Sotrovimab (although conditionally).^[239] Later on 24 January, it was reported that about 57% of the world had been infected by COVID-19, per the Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation Model.^[66][67]

On 6 March, it was reported that the total worldwide death count had surpassed 6 million people since the start of the pandemic.

BA.5 had spread worldwide.^[241]

On 21 October the United States surpassed 99 million cases of COVID-19, the most cases of any country.[242]

On 30 October, it was reported that worldwide 424 deaths occurred due to the virus, the lowest since 385 deaths were reported on 12 March 2020.^[243] 17 November marked the three-year anniversary since health officials in China first detected COVID-19.^[244] Ghebreyesus of the WHO stated on 14 September 2022, that "[The world has] never been in a better position to end the pandemic", citing the lowest number of weekly reported deaths since March 2020. He continued, "We are not there yet. But the end is in sight—we can see the finish line".^{[245][246][247][248]}

On 11 November, the World Health Organization reported that deaths since the month of February have dropped 90 percent. Director-General Tedros Adhanom Ghebreyesus said this was "cause for optimism".^[249] On 3 December, the World Health Organization indicated that, "at least 90% of the world's population has some level of immunity to Sars-CoV-2".^[250] On 21 December, data from China's health authorities revealed that 248 million people, nearly 18 percent of its population, had been infected within just the first 20 days of December, as China abruptly halted its stringent lockdown measures.^[251]

On 29 December 2022, the U.S. joined Italy, Japan, Taiwan and India in requiring negative COVID-19 test results from all people traveling from China due to the new surge in cases, while the EU refused similar measures, stating that the BF7 omicron variant had already spread throughout Europe without becoming dominant.^[252][253]

2023

Timelines of the COVID-19 pandemic in 2023 by month: January, February, March

On 4 January 2023, the World Health Organization indicated that the information being shared by China during its latest virus surge lacks data, such as hospitalization rates.^[254] On 10 January, the World Health Organization’s Europe office indicated that there was no current threat from China's recent viral surge for the aforementioned region.^[255] On January 16, the WHO recommended, "the monitoring of excess mortality, which provides us with a more comprehensive understanding of the impact of COVID-19", in regards to the current surge in China.^[256]

On 27 January, the World Health Organization met to decide if COVID-19 still met the criteria of a public health emergency of international concern (PHEIC).^[257] Its decision was announced on 30 January, exactly 3 years to the day when it was first declared;^[258] it was decided it was still a PHEIC.^[259] On 8 February, it was reported that a recent study aimed at China's case surge indicated no new COVID-19 variants have emerged as a result.^[260][261]

On 19 March, WHO director Dr. Tedros Adhanom Ghebreyesus indicated that he is "confident" the COVID-19 pandemic would come to an end this year.^[262]

National responses

Main articles: COVID-19 lockdowns, COVID-19 pandemic by country and territory, and National responses to the COVID-19 pandemic

National reactions ranged from strict lockdowns to public education campaigns.^[263] WHO recommended that curfews and lockdowns should be short-term measures to reorganise, regroup, rebalance resources, and protect the health care system.^[264] As of 26 March 2020, 1.7 billion people worldwide were under some form of lockdown.^[265] This increased to 3.9 billion people by the first week of April—more than half the world's population.^[266][267]

Asia

Main article: COVID-19 pandemic in Asia

As of the end of 2021, Asia's peak had come at the same time and at the same level as the world as a whole, in May 2021.^[268] However, cumulatively they had experienced only half the world average.^[269]

temporary hospital constructed in Wuhan

in February 2020.

China opted for containment, inflicting strict lockdowns to eliminate spread.[270]^[271] The vaccines distributed in China included the BIBP, WIBP, and CoronaVac.^[272] It was reported on 11 December 2021, that China had vaccinated 1.162 billion of its citizens, or 82.5% of the total population of the country against COVID-19.^[273] China's large-scale adoption of zero-COVID had largely contained the first waves of infections of the disease.^{[274][275][276]} When the waves of infections due to the Omicron variant followed, China was almost alone in pursuing the strategy of zero-Covid to combat the spread of the virus in 2022.^[277] Lockdown continued to be employed in November to combat a new wave of cases;^[278][279] however, protests erupted in cities across China over the country's stringent measures,^[280][281] and in December that year, the country relaxed its zero-COVID policy.^[282] On 20 December 2022, the Chinese State Council narrowed its definition of what would be counted as a COVID-19 death to include solely respiratory failure, which led to skepticism by health experts of the government's total death count^[283][284] at a time when hospitals reported being overwhelmed with cases following the abrupt discontinuation of zero-COVID.^[285]

The first case in India was reported on 30 January 2020. India ordered a nationwide lockdown starting 24 March 2020,^[286] with a phased unlock beginning 1 June 2020. Six cities accounted for around half of reported cases—Mumbai, Delhi, Ahmedabad, Chennai, Pune and Kolkata.^[287] Post-lockdown, the Government of India introduced a contact tracking app called Arogya Setu to help authorities manage contact tracing. Later this app was also used for a vaccination management program.^[288] India's vaccination program was considered to be the world's largest and the most successful with over 90% of citizens getting the first dose and another 65% getting the second dose.^[289][290] A second wave hit India in April 2021, straining healthcare services.^[291] On 21 October 2021, it was reported that the country had surpassed 1 billion vaccinations.^[292]

Disinfection of Tehran Metro trains against COVID-19 transmission. Similar measures have also been taken in other countries.^[293]

Iran reported its first confirmed cases on 19 February 2020, in Qom.^[294][295] Early measures included the cancellation of concerts and other cultural events,^[296] Friday prayers,^[297] and education shutdowns.^[298] Iran became a centre of the pandemic in February 2020.^[299][300] More than ten countries had traced their outbreaks to Iran by 28 February, indicating a more severe outbreak than the 388 reported cases.^[300][301] The Iranian Parliament closed, after 23 of its 290 members tested positive on 3 March 2020.^[302] At least twelve sitting or former Iranian politicians and government officials had died by 17 March 2020.^[303] By August 2021, the pandemic's fifth wave peaked, with more than 400 deaths in 1 day.^[304]

COVID-19 was confirmed in South Korea on 20 January 2020. Military bases were quarantined after tests showed three infected soldiers.^[305] South Korea introduced what was then considered the world's largest and best-organised screening programme, isolating infected people, and tracing and quarantining contacts.^[306] Screening methods included mandatory self-reporting by new international arrivals through mobile application,^[307] combined with drive-through testing,^[308] and increasing testing capability to 20,000 people/day.^[309] Despite some early criticisms,^[310] South Korea's programme was considered a success in controlling the outbreak without quarantining entire cities.^{[306][311][312]}

Europe

Deaths per 100,000 residents

The global COVID-19 pandemic arrived in Europe with its first confirmed case in Bordeaux, France, on 24 January 2020, and subsequently spread widely across the continent. By 17 March 2020, every country in Europe had confirmed a case,^[313] and all have reported at least one death, with the exception of Vatican City. Italy was the first European nation to experience a major outbreak in early 2020, becoming the first country worldwide to introduce a national lockdown.^[314] By 13 March 2020, the World Health Organization (WHO) declared Europe the epicentre of the pandemic^[315][316] and it remained so until the WHO announced it had been overtaken by South America on 22 May.^[317] By 18 March 2020, more than 250 million people were in lockdown in Europe.^[318] Despite deployment of COVID-19 vaccines, Europe became the pandemic's epicentre once again in late 2021.^[319][320]

The Italian outbreak began on 31 January 2020, when two Chinese tourists tested positive for SARS-CoV-2 in Rome.^[215] Cases began to rise sharply, which prompted the government to suspend flights to and from China and declare a state of emergency.^[321] On 22 February 2020, the Council of Ministers announced a new decree-law to contain the outbreak, including quarantining more than 50,000 people in northern Italy.^[322] On 4 March the Italian government ordered schools and universities closed as Italy reached a hundred deaths. Sport was suspended completely for at least one month.^[323] On 11 March Conte stopped nearly all commercial activity except supermarkets and pharmacies.^[324][325] On 19 March Italy overtook China as the country with the most COVID-19-related deaths.^[326][327] On 19 April the first wave ebbed, as 7-day deaths declined to 433.^[328] On 13 October, the Italian government again issued restrictive rules to contain the second wave.^[329] On 10 November Italy surpassed 1 million confirmed infections.^[330] On 23 November, it was reported that the second wave of the virus had led some hospitals to stop accepting patients.^[331]

Vaccinations at a retirement home in Gijón

, Spain, in December 2020.

Sweden differed from most other European countries in that it mostly remained open.[341] Per the Swedish Constitution, the Public Health Agency of Sweden has autonomy that prevents political interference and the agency favoured remaining open. The Swedish strategy focused on longer-term measures, based on the assumption that after lockdown the virus would resume spreading, with the same result.^[342][343] By the end of June, Sweden no longer had excess mortality.^[344]

Devolution in the United Kingdom meant that each of its four countries developed its own response. England's restrictions were shorter-lived than the others.^[345] The UK government started enforcing social distancing and quarantine measures on 18 March 2020.^[346][347] On 16 March, Prime Minister Boris Johnson advised against non-essential travel and social contact, praising work from home and avoiding venues such as pubs, restaurants, and theatres.^[348][349] On 20 March, the government ordered all leisure establishments to close,^[350] and promised to prevent unemployment.^[351] On 23 March, Johnson banned gatherings and restricted non-essential travel and outdoor activity. Unlike previous measures, these restrictions were enforceable by police through fines and dispersal of gatherings. Most non-essential businesses were ordered to close.^[352] On 24 April 2020, it was reported that a promising vaccine trial had begun in England; the government pledged more than £50 million towards research.^[353] On 16 April 2020, it was reported that the UK would have first access to the Oxford vaccine, due to a prior contract; should the trial be successful, some 30 million doses would be available.^[354] On 2 December 2020, the UK became the first developed country to approve the Pfizer vaccine; 800,000 doses were immediately available for use.^[355] In August 2022 it was reported that viral infection cases had declined in the UK.^[356]

North America

The virus arrived in the United States on 13 January 2020.^[357] Cases were reported in all North American countries after Saint Kitts and Nevis confirmed a case on 25 March, and in all North American territories after Bonaire confirmed a case on 16 April.^[358]

The hospital ship USNS Comfort arrives in Manhattan

on 30 March 2020.

102,417,985[359] confirmed cases have been reported in the United States with 1,113,229^[359] deaths, the most of any country, and the nineteenth-highest per capita worldwide.^[360] COVID-19 is the deadliest pandemic in U.S. history;^[361] it was the third-leading cause of death in the U.S. in 2020, behind heart disease and cancer.^[362] From 2019 to 2020, U.S. life expectancy dropped by 3 years for Hispanic Americans, 2.9 years for African Americans, and 1.2 years for white Americans.^[363] These effects have persisted as U.S. deaths due to COVID-19 in 2021 exceeded those in 2020.^[364] In the United States, COVID-19 vaccines became available in December 2020, under emergency use, beginning the national vaccination program, with the first vaccine officially approved by the Food and Drug Administration on 23 August 2021.^[365] On 18 November 2022, while cases in the U.S. have declined, COVID variants BQ.1/BQ.1.1 have become dominant in the country.^[366][367]

In March 2020, as cases of community transmission were confirmed across

Disinfection of public area in Itapevi

, Brazil, in April 2020.

The COVID-19 pandemic was confirmed to have reached South America on 26 February 2020, when Brazil confirmed a case in São Paulo.^[373] By 3 April, all countries and territories in South America had recorded at least one case.^[374] On 13 May 2020, it was reported that Latin America and the Caribbean had reported over 400,000 cases of COVID-19 infection with 23,091 deaths. On 22 May 2020, citing the rapid increase of infections in Brazil, the World Health Organization WHO declared South America the epicentre of the pandemic.^[375][376] As of 16 July 2021, South America had recorded 34,359,631 confirmed cases and 1,047,229 deaths from COVID-19. Due to a shortage of testing and medical facilities, it is believed that the outbreak is far larger than the official numbers show.^[377]

The virus was confirmed to have spread to Brazil on 25 February 2020,^[378] when a man from São Paulo who had traveled to Italy^[379] tested positive for the virus. The disease had spread to every federative unit of Brazil by 21 March. On 19 June 2020, the country reported its one millionth case and nearly 49,000 reported deaths.^[380][381] One estimate of under-reporting was 22.62% of total reported COVID-19 mortality in 2020.^{[382][383][384]} As of 22 March 2023, Brazil, with 37,085,520^[359] confirmed cases and 699,310^[359] deaths, has the third-highest number of confirmed cases and second-highest death toll from COVID-19 in the world, behind only those of the United States and of India.^[385]

Africa

US Air Force personnel unload a C-17 aircraft carrying medical supplies in Niamey

, Niger, in April 2020.

The COVID-19 pandemic was confirmed to have spread to Africa on 14 February 2020, with the first confirmed case announced in Egypt.^[386][387] The first confirmed case in sub-Saharan Africa was announced in Nigeria at the end of February 2020.^[388] Within three months, the virus had spread throughout the continent, as Lesotho, the last African sovereign state to have remained free of the virus, reported a case on 13 May 2020.^[389][390] By 26 May, it appeared that most African countries were experiencing community transmission, although testing capacity was limited.^[391] Most of the identified imported cases arrived from Europe and the United States rather than from China where the virus originated.^[392] Many preventive measures have been implemented by different countries in Africa including travel restrictions, flight cancellations, and event cancellations.^[393]

In early June 2021, Africa faced a third wave of COVID infections with cases rising in 14 countries.^[394] By 4 July the continent recorded more than 251,000 new COVID cases, a 20% increase from the prior week and a 12% increase from the January peak. More than sixteen African countries, including Malawi and Senegal, recorded an uptick in new cases.^[395] The World Health Organization labelled it Africa's 'Worst Pandemic Week Ever'.^[396] In October 2022, it was reported by the World Health Organization that most countries on the African continent will miss the goal of 70 percent of their population being vaccinated by the end of 2022.^[397]

Oceania

Empty shelves at a Coles grocery store in Brisbane

, Australia, in April 2020.

The COVID-19 pandemic was confirmed to have reached Oceania on 25 January 2020, with the first confirmed case reported in Melbourne, Australia.^[398] It has since spread elsewhere in the region.^[399] Australia and New Zealand were praised for their handling of the pandemic in comparison to other Western nations, with New Zealand and each state in Australia wiping out all community transmission of the virus several times even after re-introduction into the community.^{[400][401][402]}

As a result of the high transmissibility of the Delta variant, however, by August 2021, the Australian states of

On 9 September restrictions were significantly relaxed. The mask mandate on aircraft was scrapped nationwide.[411] 9 September was also the last day cases were reported daily in Australia as the country transitioned to weekly reporting instead.^[412] On 14 September, COVID-19 disaster payment for people who had to isolate due to COVID-19 was extended so long as isolating was mandated by the government.^[413] By 22 September all states had ended mask mandates on public transport including in Victoria where the mandate had lasted some 800 days.^[414] On 30 September 2022, all Australian leaders declared the emergency response finished and announced the end of the requirement for people to isolate from 14 October if they have COVID-19 due in part to high levels of 'hybrid immunity' and very low case numbers.^[415]

Antarctica

Due to its remoteness and sparse population, Antarctica was the last continent to have confirmed cases of COVID-19 and was one of the last regions of the world affected directly by the pandemic.^{[416][417][418]} The first cases were reported in December 2020, almost a year after the first cases of COVID-19 were detected in China. At least 36 people are confirmed to have been infected.^[419]

Other responses

United Nations

In June 2020, the Secretary-General of the United Nations launched the UN Comprehensive Response to COVID-19.^[420] The United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNSC) was criticised for its slow response, especially regarding the UN's global ceasefire, which aimed to open up humanitarian access to conflict zones.^[421]

WHO

World Health Organization representatives holding joint meeting with Tehran

city administrators in March 2020.

The WHO spearheaded initiatives such as the COVID-19 Solidarity Response Fund to raise money for the pandemic response, the UN COVID-19 Supply Chain Task Force, and the solidarity trial for investigating potential treatment options for the disease. The COVAX program, co-led by the WHO, GAVI, and the Coalition for Epidemic Preparedness Innovations (CEPI), aimed to accelerate the development, manufacture, and distribution of COVID-19 vaccines, and to guarantee fair and equitable access across the world.^[422]

Protests against governmental measures

In several countries, protests rose against restrictions such as lockdowns. A February 2021 study found that protests against restrictions were likely to directly increase spread.^[423]

Restrictions

Donated medical supplies received in the Philippines.

The pandemic shook the world's economy, with especially severe economic damage in the United States, Europe, and Latin America.[424] A consensus report by American intelligence agencies in April 2021 concluded, "Efforts to contain and manage the virus have reinforced nationalist trends globally, as some states turned inward to protect their citizens and sometimes cast blame on marginalized groups." COVID-19 inflamed partisanship and polarisation around the world as bitter arguments exploded over how to respond. International trade was disrupted amid the formation of no-entry enclaves.^[425]

Travel restrictions

The pandemic led many countries and regions to impose quarantines, entry bans, or other restrictions, either for citizens, recent travellers to affected areas,^[426] or for all travellers.^[427] Travel collapsed worldwide, damaging the travel sector. The effectiveness of travel restrictions was questioned as the virus spread across the world.^[428] One study found that travel restrictions only modestly affected the initial spread, unless combined with other infection prevention and control measures.^[429] Researchers concluded that "travel restrictions are most useful in the early and late phase of an epidemic" and "restrictions of travel from Wuhan unfortunately came too late".^[430] The European Union rejected the idea of suspending the Schengen free travel zone.^[431][432]

Repatriation of foreign citizens

Ukraine evacuates Ukrainian citizens from Wuhan

, China.

Several countries repatriated their citizens and diplomatic staff from Wuhan and surroundings, primarily through charter flights. Canada, the United States, Japan, India,^[433] Sri Lanka, Australia, France, Argentina, Germany, and Thailand were among the first to do so.^[434] Brazil and New Zealand evacuated their own nationals and others.^[435][436] On 14 March, South Africa repatriated 112 South Africans who tested negative, while four who showed symptoms were left behind.^[437] Pakistan declined to evacuate its citizens.^[438]

On 15 February, the US announced it would evacuate Americans aboard the

Economics