Cabbage
Cabbage | |
---|---|
Species | Brassica oleracea |
Cultivar group | Capitata Group |
Origin | Europe, prior to 1000 BC |
Cultivar group members |
|
Cabbage, comprising several
A cabbage generally weighs between 500 and 1,000 grams (1 and 2 lb). Smooth-leafed, firm-headed green cabbages are the most common, with smooth-leafed purple cabbages and crinkle-leafed savoy cabbages of both colours being rarer. Under conditions of long sunny days, such as those found at high northern latitudes in summer, cabbages can grow quite large. As of 2012[update], the heaviest cabbage was 62.71 kilograms (138 lb 4 oz). Cabbage heads are generally picked during the first year of the plant's
Cabbage was most likely
They can be prepared many different ways for eating; they can be
Description
Cabbage seedlings have a thin taproot and cordate (heart-shaped) cotyledons. The first leaves produced are ovate (egg-shaped) with a lobed petiole. Plants are 40–60 centimetres (15+1⁄2–23+1⁄2 inches) tall in their first year at the mature vegetative stage, and 1.5–2 metres (5–6+1⁄2 feet) tall when flowering in the second year.[6] Heads average between 0.5 and 4 kilograms (1 and 8 pounds), with fast-growing, earlier-maturing varieties producing smaller heads.[7] Most cabbages have thick, alternating leaves, with margins that range from wavy or lobed to highly dissected; some varieties have a waxy bloom on the leaves. Plants have root systems that are fibrous and shallow.[8] About 90% of the root mass is in the upper 20–30 cm (8–12 in) of soil; some lateral roots can penetrate up to 2 m (6+1⁄2 ft) deep.[6]
The
Many shapes, colors and leaf textures are found in various cultivated varieties of cabbage. Leaf types are generally divided between crinkled-leaf, loose-head savoys and smooth-leaf firm-head cabbages, while the color spectrum includes white and a range of greens and purples. Oblate, round and pointed shapes are found.[10]
Cabbage has been selectively bred for head weight and morphological characteristics, frost hardiness, fast growth and storage ability. The appearance of the cabbage head has been given importance in selective breeding, with varieties being chosen for shape, color, firmness and other physical characteristics.[11] Breeding objectives are now focused on increasing resistance to various insects and diseases and improving the nutritional content of cabbage.[12] Scientific research into the genetic modification of B. oleracea crops, including cabbage, has included European Union and United States explorations of greater insect and herbicide resistance.[13]
There are several
Taxonomy
Cabbage (Brassica oleracea or B. oleracea var. capitata,
"Cabbage" was originally used to refer to multiple forms of B. oleracea, including those with loose or non-existent heads.
Etymology
The original family name of brassicas was Cruciferae, which derived from the flower petal pattern thought by medieval Europeans to resemble a crucifix.[8] The word brassica derives from bresic, a Celtic word for cabbage.[20] The varietal epithet capitata is derived from the Latin word for 'having a head'.[24]
Many European and Asiatic names for cabbage are derived from the
Cultivation
History
Although cabbage has an extensive history,[1] it is difficult to trace its exact origins owing to the many varieties of leafy greens classified as "brassicas".[27] A possible wild ancestor of cabbage, Brassica oleracea, originally found in Britain and continental Europe, is tolerant of salt but not encroachment by other plants and consequently inhabits rocky cliffs in cool damp coastal habitats,[28] retaining water and nutrients in its slightly thickened, turgid leaves. However, genetic analysis is consistent with feral origin of this population, deriving from plants escaped from field and gardens.[29] According to the triangle of U theory of the evolution and relationships between Brassica species, B. oleracea and other closely related kale vegetables (cabbages, kale, broccoli, Brussels sprouts, and cauliflower) represent one of three ancestral lines from which all other brassicas originated.[30]
Cabbage was probably domesticated later in history than Near Eastern crops such as lentils and summer wheat. Because of the wide range of crops developed from the wild B. oleracea, multiple broadly contemporaneous domestications of cabbage may have occurred throughout Europe. Nonheading cabbages and kale were probably the first to be domesticated, before 1000 BC,[31] perhaps by the Celts of central and western Europe,[20] although recent linguistic and genetic evidence enforces a Mediterranean origin of cultivated brassicas.[32]
While unidentified brassicas were part of the highly conservative unchanging
Brassica was considered by some Romans a table luxury,[40] although Lucullus considered it unfit for the senatorial table.[41] The more traditionalist Cato the Elder, espousing a simple Republican life, ate his cabbage cooked or raw and dressed with vinegar; he said it surpassed all other vegetables, and approvingly distinguished three varieties; he also gave directions for its medicinal use, which extended to the cabbage-eater's urine, in which infants might be rinsed.[42] Pliny the Elder listed seven varieties, including Pompeii cabbage, Cumae cabbage and Sabellian cabbage.[34]
According to Pliny, the Pompeii cabbage, which could not stand cold, is "taller, and has a thick stock near the root, but grows thicker between the leaves, these being scantier and narrower, but their tenderness is a valuable quality".
The antipathy towards the vine made it seem that eating cabbage would enable one to avoid drunkenness.
At the end of Antiquity cabbage is mentioned in De observatione ciborum ("On the Observance of Foods") by Anthimus, a Greek doctor at the court of Theodoric the Great. Cabbage appears among vegetables directed to be cultivated in the Capitulare de villis, composed in 771–800 AD, that guided the governance of the royal estates of Charlemagne.
In Britain, the Anglo-Saxons cultivated cawel.[44] When round-headed cabbages appeared in 14th-century England they were called cabaches and caboches, words drawn from Old French and applied at first to refer to the ball of unopened leaves,[45] the contemporaneous recipe that commences "Take cabbages and quarter them, and seethe them in good broth",[46] also suggests the tightly headed cabbage.
In Istanbul, Sultan Selim III penned a tongue-in-cheek ode to cabbage: without cabbage, the halva feast was not complete.[50] In India, cabbage was one of several vegetable crops introduced by colonizing traders from Portugal, who established trade routes from the 14th to 17th centuries.[51] Carl Peter Thunberg reported that cabbage was not yet known in Japan in 1775.[25]
Many cabbage varieties—including some still commonly grown—were introduced in Germany, France, and the Low Countries.[20] During the 16th century, German gardeners developed the savoy cabbage.[52] During the 17th and 18th centuries, cabbage was a food staple in such countries as Germany, England, Ireland and Russia, and pickled cabbage was frequently eaten.[4] Sauerkraut was used by Dutch, Scandinavian and German sailors to prevent scurvy during long ship voyages.[5]
Jacques Cartier first brought cabbage to the Americas in 1541–42, and it was probably planted by the early English colonists, despite the lack of written evidence of its existence there until the mid-17th century. By the 18th century, it was commonly planted by both colonists and native American Indians.[20] Cabbage seeds traveled to Australia in 1788 with the First Fleet, and were planted the same year on Norfolk Island. It became a favorite vegetable of Australians by the 1830s and was frequently seen at the Sydney Markets.[52] In Brno, Czech Republic there is an open-air market named after cabbage which has been in operation since 1325, the Zelný trh.
Modern cultivation
Cabbage is generally grown for its densely leaved heads, produced during the first year of its biennial cycle. Plants perform best when grown in well-drained soil in a location that receives full sun. Different varieties prefer different soil types, ranging from lighter sand to heavier clay, but all prefer fertile ground with a pH between 6.0 and 6.8.[53] For optimal growth, there must be adequate levels of nitrogen in the soil, especially during the early head formation stage, and sufficient phosphorus and potassium during the early stages of expansion of the outer leaves.[54]
Temperatures between 4 and 24 °C (39 and 75 °F) prompt the best growth, and extended periods of higher or lower temperatures may result in premature bolting (flowering).[53] Flowering induced by periods of low temperatures (a process called vernalization) only occurs if the plant is past the juvenile period. The transition from a juvenile to adult state happens when the stem diameter is about 6 mm (1⁄4 in). Vernalization allows the plant to grow to an adequate size before flowering. In certain climates, cabbage can be planted at the beginning of the cold period and survive until a later warm period without being induced to flower, a practice that was common in the eastern US.[55]
Plants are generally started in protected locations early in the growing season before being transplanted outside, although some are seeded directly into the ground from which they will be harvested.[7] Seedlings typically emerge in about 4–6 days from seeds planted 13 mm (1⁄2 in) deep at a soil temperature between 20 and 30 °C (68 and 86 °F).[56] Growers normally place plants 30 to 61 cm (12 to 24 in) apart.[7] Closer spacing reduces the resources available to each plant (especially the amount of light) and increases the time taken to reach maturity.[57]
Some varieties of cabbage have been developed for ornamental use; these are generally called "flowering cabbage". They do not produce heads and feature purple or green outer leaves surrounding an inner grouping of smaller leaves in white, red, or pink.[7] Early varieties of cabbage take about 70 days from planting to reach maturity, while late varieties take about 120 days.[58]
Cabbages are mature when they are firm and solid to the touch. They are harvested by cutting the stalk just below the bottom leaves with a blade. The outer leaves are trimmed, and any diseased, damaged, or necrotic leaves are removed.[59] Delays in harvest can result in the head splitting as a result of expansion of the inner leaves and continued stem growth.[60]
When being grown for seed, cabbages must be isolated from other B. oleracea subspecies, including the wild varieties, by 0.8 to 1.6 km (1⁄2 to 1 mi) to prevent cross-pollination. Other Brassica
Cultivars
There are several cultivar groups of cabbage, each including many cultivars:
- Savoy – Characterized by crimped or curly leaves, mild flavor and tender texture[27]
- Spring greens (Brassica oleracea) – Loose-headed, commonly sliced and steamed[27]
- Green – Light to dark green, slightly pointed heads.[27]
- Red – Smooth red leaves, often used for pickling or stewing[27]
- White, also called Dutch – Smooth, pale green leaves[27]
Some sources only delineate three cultivars: savoy, red and white, with spring greens and green cabbage being subsumed under the last.[62]
Cultivation problems
Due to its high level of nutrient requirements, cabbage is prone to nutrient deficiencies, including boron, calcium, phosphorus and potassium.[53] There are several physiological disorders that can affect the postharvest appearance of cabbage. Internal tip burn occurs when the margins of inside leaves turn brown, but the outer leaves look normal. Necrotic spot is where there are oval sunken spots a few millimeters across that are often grouped around the midrib. In pepper spot, tiny black spots occur on the areas between the veins, which can increase during storage.[63]
Fungal diseases include
One of the most common bacterial diseases to affect cabbage is
Pests include
The large white butterfly (
Planting near other members of the cabbage family, or where these plants have been placed in previous years, can prompt the spread of pests and disease.[53] Excessive water and excessive heat can also cause cultivation problems.[64]
Factors that contribute to reduced head weight include: growth in the compacted soils that result from no-till farming practices, drought, waterlogging, insect and disease incidence, and shading and nutrient stress caused by weeds.[54]
Production
Cabbage production – 2020 | |
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Country | Production (millions of tonnes) |
China | 33.8
|
India | 9.2
|
Russia | 2.6
|
South Korea | 2.6
|
Ukraine | 1.8
|
World | 70.9
|
Source: FAOSTAT of the United Nations[69]
|
In 2020, world production of cabbages (combined with other brassicas) was 71 million tonnes, led by China with 48% of the world total (table). Other substantial producers were India, Russia, and South Korea.[69]
Toxicity
When overcooked, toxic hydrogen sulfide gas is produced.[70]
Excessive consumption of cabbage may lead to increased
Cabbage has been linked to outbreaks of some
Whilst not a toxic vegetable in its natural state, an increase in intestinal gas can lead to the death of many small animals like rabbits due to gastrointestinal stasis.[75]
Cabbage and other
Uses
Culinary
The characteristic flavor of cabbage is caused by glucosinolates, a class of sulfur-containing glucosides. Although found throughout the plant, these compounds are concentrated in the highest quantities in the seeds; lesser quantities are found in young vegetative tissue, and they decrease as the tissue ages.[77] Cooked cabbage is often criticized for its pungent, unpleasant odor and taste. These develop when cabbage is overcooked and hydrogen sulfide gas is produced.[70]
Cabbage consumption varies widely around the world: Russia has the highest annual per capita consumption at 20 kg (44 lb), followed by Belgium at 4.7 kg (10 lb 6 oz) and the Netherlands at 4.0 kg (8 lb 13 oz). Americans consume 3.9 kg (8.6 lb) annually per capita.[43][78]
Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz) | |
---|---|
Energy | 103 kJ (25 kcal) |
5.8 g | |
Sugars | 3.2 g |
Dietary fiber | 2.5 g |
0.1 g | |
1.28 g | |
Niacin (B3) | 1% 0.234 mg |
Pantothenic acid (B5) | 4% 0.212 mg |
Vitamin B6 | 10% 0.124 mg |
Folate (B9) | 11% 43 μg |
Vitamin C | 44% 36.6 mg |
Vitamin K | 72% 76 μg |
Minerals | Quantity %DV† |
Calcium | 4% 40 mg |
Iron | 4% 0.47 mg |
Magnesium | 3% 12 mg |
Manganese | 8% 0.16 mg |
Phosphorus | 4% 26 mg |
Potassium | 6% 170 mg |
Sodium | 1% 18 mg |
Zinc | 2% 0.18 mg |
Other constituents | Quantity |
Water | 92 g |
Fluoride | 1 µg |
†Percentages estimated using US recommendations for adults.[79] |
Nutrition
Raw cabbage is 92% water, 6%
, with no other nutrients having significant content per 100-gram serving.Local market and storage
Cabbages sold for market are generally smaller, and different varieties are used for those sold immediately upon harvest and those stored before sale. Those used for processing, especially sauerkraut, are larger and have a lower percentage of water.[10] Both hand and mechanical harvesting are used, and hand-harvesting is generally used for cabbages destined for market sales. In commercial-scale operations, hand-harvested cabbages are trimmed, sorted, and packed directly in the field to increase efficiency.[81]
Vacuum cooling rapidly refrigerates the vegetable, allowing for earlier shipping and a fresher product. Cabbage can be stored the longest at −1 to 2 °C (30 to 36 °F) with a humidity of 90–100%; these conditions will result in up to six months of longevity. When stored under less ideal conditions, cabbage can still last up to four months.[81]
Food preparation
In Poland, cabbage is one of the main food crops, and it features prominently in Polish cuisine. It is frequently eaten, either cooked or as sauerkraut, as a side dish or as an ingredient in such dishes as bigos (cabbage, sauerkraut, meat, and wild mushrooms, among other ingredients) gołąbki (stuffed cabbage) and pierogi (filled dumplings). Other eastern European countries, such as Hungary and Romania, also have traditional dishes that feature cabbage as a main ingredient.[84] In India and Ethiopia, cabbage is often included in spicy salads and braises.[85] In the United States, cabbage is used primarily for the production of coleslaw, followed by market use and sauerkraut production.[43]
Phytochemicals
Herbalism
In addition to its usual purpose as an edible vegetable, cabbage has been used historically in
The supposed cooling properties of the leaves were used in Britain as a treatment for
See also
References
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- ^ a b Tannahill, pp. 289–291
- ^ a b Nolte, Kurt. "Green Cabbage" (PDF). University of Arizona. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-06-26. Retrieved 2012-08-14.
- ^ a b c d Dixon, p. 19
- ^ a b c d e "Cabbage". University of Illinois Extension. Retrieved 2012-08-10.
- ^ a b c Katz and Weaver, p. 279
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- Ordas, Amando; Cartea, M. Elena (2008). "Cabbage and Kale". In Prohens, J.; Nuez, F (eds.). Vegetables I: Asteraceae, Brassicaceae, Chenopodiaceae, and Cucurbitaceae. Vol. 2. Springer. ISBN 978-0-387-72291-7.
- Tannahill, Reay (1973). Food in History. Stein and Day. ISBN 978-0-8128-1437-8.
- Toussaint-Samat, Maguelonne (2009). A History of Food (2nd ed.). Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-1405181198.
- Wien, H. C.; Wurr, D. C. E. (1997). "Cauliflower, broccoli, cabbage and brussel sprouts". In Wien, H. C. (ed.). The Physiology of Vegetable Crops. CAB International. ISBN 978-0-85199-146-7.