Cabernet Sauvignon

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Cabernet Sauvignon
excoriose
VIVC number1929
Wine characteristics
GeneralDense, dark, tannic
Cool climateVegetal, bell pepper, asparagus
Medium climateMint, black pepper, eucalyptus
Hot climateJam

Cabernet Sauvignon (French:

Maipo Valley and Colchagua. For most of the 20th century, it was the world's most widely planted premium red wine grape until it was surpassed by Merlot in the 1990s.[1]
However, by 2015, Cabernet Sauvignon had once again become the most widely planted wine grape, with a total of 341,000 hectares (3,410 km2) under vine worldwide.[2]

Despite its prominence in the industry, the grape is a relatively new variety, the product of a chance

viticultural hazards such as rot and insects—and to its consistent presentation of structure and flavours which express the typical character ("typicity") of the variety. Familiarity has helped sell Cabernet Sauvignon wines to consumers, even from unfamiliar wine regions. Its widespread popularity has also contributed to criticism of the grape as a "colonizer" that takes over wine regions at the expense of indigenous grape varieties.[3]

The classic profile of Cabernet Sauvignon tends to be

South Australia, Cabernet Sauvignon wines tend to have characteristic eucalyptus or menthol notes.[4]

History and origins

Cabernet Franc

For many years, the origin of Cabernet Sauvignon was not clearly understood, and many myths and conjectures surrounded it. Until recently, the grape was rumoured to have ancient origins, perhaps even being the Biturica grape used to make

Rioja region of Spain.[5]

While the period when the name Cabernet Sauvignon became more prevalent over Petite Vidure is not certain, records indicate that the grape was a popular Bordeaux planting in the 18th century

The grape's true origins were discovered in 1996 with the use of

grassiness of Sauvignon blanc.[3] In 2016, scientists at the UC Davis announced they had sequenced a draft of the whole genome of the Cabernet Sauvignon grape, the first genome of a commercial wine-producing grape to be sequenced.[6]

Sauvignon blanc

Offspring and White Cabernet

While not as prolific in

Switzerland in the late 20th century.[8]

In 1977 a vine producing 'bronze' grapes was found in the vineyards of Cleggett Wines in Australia. They propagated this mutant, registered it under the name of Malian, and sold pale red wines under that name. In 1991 one of the Bronze Cabernet vines started producing white grapes. Cleggett registered this "White Cabernet" under the name of Shalistin.[9] Compared to its Cabernet parent, Malian appears to lack anthocyanins in the subepidermal cells but retains them in the epidermis, whereas Shalistin has no anthocyanins in either layer. The team that went on to discover the VvMYBA1 and VvMYBA2 genes that control grape colour have suggested that a gene involved in anthocyanin production has been deleted in the subepidermis of Malian, and then subepidermal cells invaded the epidermis to produce Shalistin.[10]

During a series of trials between 1924 and 1930, the pollen of Cabernet Sauvignon was used to fertilize

Incrocio Manzoni 2.15.[11]

In 1972, the Australian agency CSIRO crossed Cabernet Sauvignon grapes with the Spanish Sumoll variety to create three new varieties: Cienna, Tyrian and Rubienne.[12]

In 1983, Cabernet Sauvignon was crossed with the white German wine grape Bronner to create the white wine grape Souvignier gris.[13]

Viticulture

ripening grapes. This makes canopy management and aggressive pruning an important consideration for growers.[1]

While Cabernet Sauvignon can grow in a variety of climates, its suitability as a varietal wine or as a blend component is strongly influenced by the warmth of the climate. The vine is one of the last major grape varieties to bud and ripen (typically 1–2 weeks after Merlot and Cabernet franc[1]), and the climate of the growing season affects how early the grapes will be harvested. Many wine regions in California give the vine an abundance of sunshine with few problems in ripening fully, which increases the likelihood of producing varietal Cabernet wines. In regions like Bordeaux, under the threat of inclement harvest season weather, Cabernet Sauvignon is often harvested a little earlier than ideal and blended with other grapes to fill in the gaps.[further explanation needed] In some regions, the climate will be more important than the soil. In regions that are too cool, there is a potential for more herbaceous and green bell pepper flavours from less than ideally ripened grapes. In regions where the grape is exposed to excess warmth and over-ripening, there is a propensity for the wine to develop flavours of cooked or stewed blackcurrants.[3]

The Cabernet grape variety has thrived in a variety of

terra rosa soil – so much so that the red soil is considered the "boundary" of the wine region, with some controversy from wine growers with Cabernet Sauvignon, planted on red soil.[15]

In addition to ripeness levels, the harvest

green harvesting with aggressive pruning of grape clusters soon after veraison.[3]

In general, Cabernet Sauvignon has good resistance to most

The "green bell pepper" flavor

Cabernet Sauvignon in Washington State, planted in 1973 at Red Willow Vineyard in the Yakima Valley.

A couple of noted Cabernet Sauvignon flavours are intimately tied to

nanograms (ng) per litre. At the time of veraison, when the grapes first start to ripen fully, there is the equivalent pyrazine level of 30 ng/L. In cooler climates, getting Cabernet Sauvignon grapes to ripen fully to the point where pyrazine is not detected is difficult. The green bell pepper flavour is not considered a wine fault, but it may not be desirable to all consumers' tastes. The California wine region of Monterey was noted in the late 20th century for its very vegetal Cabernet Sauvignon with pronounced green pepper flavour, earning the nickname "Monterey veggies". In addition to its cool climate, Monterey is also prone to being very windy, which can shut down the grape vines and further inhibit ripeness.[3]

Two other well-known Cabernet Sauvignon flavours are mint and eucalyptus. Mint flavours are often associated with wine regions that are warm enough to have low pyrazine levels but are still generally cool, such as Australia's Coonawarra region and some areas of Washington State. Some believe that soil could also contribute to the minty notes since the flavour also appears in some wines from the Pauillac region but not from the similar climate of Margaux. Resinous Eucalyptus flavours tend to appear in regions that are habitats for the eucalyptus tree, such as California's Napa and Sonoma valleys and parts of Australia, but there has been no evidence to conclusively prove a direct link between proximity of eucalyptus trees and the presence of that flavour in the wine.[3]

Winemaking

tannins
are extracted from the skins. The addition of stems and seeds will increase the tannic content of the wine.

In many aspects, Cabernet Sauvignon can reflect the desires and personality of the winemaker while still presenting familiar flavours that express the typical character of the variety. The most pronounced effects are from the use of

fermentation. Due to the different fermentation styles of the grapes, many producers will ferment and age each grape variety separately and blend the wine shortly before bottling.[16]

The Cabernet Sauvignon grape itself is very small, with a thick skin, creating a high 1:12 ratio of

tannins can have a stark influence on the structure and flavour of the wine—especially if the must is subjected to long periods of maceration (skin contact) before fermentation. In Bordeaux, the maceration period was traditionally three weeks, which gave the winemaking staff enough time to close down the estate after harvest to take a hunting holiday. These long maceration periods result in very tannic and flavorful wines that require years of ageing. Wine producers wishing to make a wine more approachable within a couple of years will drastically reduce the maceration time to as few days. Following maceration, the Cabernet must be fermented at high temperatures of up to 30 °C (86 °F). The fermentation temperature will play a role in the result, with deeper colours and more flavour components being extracted at higher temperatures while more fruit flavours are maintained at a lower temperature. In Australia, there has been experimentation with carbonic maceration to make softer, fruity Cabernet Sauvignon wines.[3]

The tannic nature of Cabernet Sauvignon is an important winemaking consideration. As the must is exposed to prolonged maceration periods, more tannins are extracted from the skin and will be present in the resulting wine. If winemakers choose not to shorten the period of maceration in favour of maximizing colour and flavour concentrations, there are some methods that they can use to soften tannin levels. A common method is oak ageing, which exposes the wine to gradual levels of

micro-oxygenation, which mimics some of the gradual aeration that occurs with barrel ageing, with the limited exposure to oxygen aiding in the polymerization of the tannins into larger molecules, which are perceived on the palate as being softer.[5]

Affinity for oak

Tuscany bring less wine into contact with the wood and therefore leave the resulting wine with less oak influence
.

One of the most noted traits of Cabernet Sauvignon is its affinity for oak, either during fermentation or in

barrel aging. In addition to having a softening effect on the grape's naturally high tannins, the unique wood flavours of vanilla and baking spice complement the natural grape flavours of blackcurrant and tobacco. The particular success of Cabernet-based Bordeaux blends in the 225 litres (59 gallons) barrique significantly influenced that barrel size one of the most popular worldwide. In winemaking, the decision for the degree of oak influence (as well as which type of oak) will strongly impact the resulting wine. American oak, particularly from new barrels, imparts more robust oak flavours less subtle than those imparted by French oak. Even within the American oak family, the location of the oak source also plays a role, with oak from the state of Oregon having a more pronounced influence on Cabernet Sauvignon than oak from Missouri, Pennsylvania and Virginia. Winemakers often use a variety of oak barrels from different locations and of different ages and blend the wine as if they are blending different grape varieties.[3]

Winemakers can also control the influence of oak by using alternatives to the standard barrique barrels. Larger barrels have a smaller wood-to-wine ratio and, therefore, less pronounced oak flavours. Winemakers in

oak chips or adding oak planks to the wines while fermenting or ageing it in stainless steel tanks. While these methods are less costly than oak barrels, they create more pronounced oak flavours, which tend not to mellow or integrate with the rest of the wine's components, nor do they provide the gradual oxidation benefit of barrel ageing.[5]

Wine regions

Bordeaux

Armand d'Armailhac of Château d'Armailhac (bottle picture) and Baron Hector de Brane of Château Mouton were important figures in the establishment of Cabernet Sauvignon in Bordeaux.

The

Languedoc
.

The decision to first start blending Cabernet Sauvignon was partly derived from financial necessity. The sometimes temperamental and unpredictable climate of Bordeaux during the "

acidity, tannins and aging potential as a base or backbone of the wine. By itself, particularly when harvested at less than ideal ripeness, it can lack a sense of fruit or "fleshiness" on the palate which can be compensated by adding the rounder flavours of Merlot. Cabernet franc can add more aromas to the bouquet and more fruitiness. In the lighter soils of the Margaux region, Cabernet-based wines can lack colour, which can be achieved by blending in Petit Verdot. Malbec, used today mostly in Fronsac, can add other fruit and floral aromas.[3]

DNA evidence has shown Cabernet Sauvignon is the result of crossing two other Bordeaux grape varieties— Cabernet franc and Sauvignon blanc— which has led grapevine historians, or

maritime climate of Bordeaux. The grape continued to grow in popularity until the Powdery mildew epidemic of 1852 exposed Cabernet Sauvignon's sensitivity to that grape disease. With vineyards severely ravaged or lost, many Bordeaux wine growers turned to Merlot, increasing its plantings to where it soon became the most widely planted grape in Bordeaux. As the region's winemakers started to understand better the area's terroir and how the different grape varieties performed in other regions, Cabernet Sauvignon increased in plantings all along the Left Bank region of the Gironde river in the Médoc as well as Graves region, where it became the dominant variety in the wine blends. In the Right bank regions of Saint-Émilion and Pomerol, Cabernet is a distant third in plantings behind Merlot & Cabernet franc.[3]

In the wine regions of the Left Bank, the Cabernet influence of the wine has shown unique characteristics in the different regions. In

cedar and cigar boxes. The Cabernet wines of the Moulis are characterized by their soft tannins and rich fruit flavours while the southern Graves region is characterized by strong blackcurrant flavours, though in less intense wines overall.[3] The percentage of Cabernet Sauvignon used in the blend will depend on terroir and the winemakers' styles as well as the vintage. The First Growth estates of Château Mouton Rothschild and Château Latour are noted for regularly producing wines with some of the highest percentages of Cabernet— often around 75%.[1]

A common factor affecting Bordeaux wines' flavours is Cabernet Sauvignon's harvest yields. Throughout Bordeaux, there is a legal maximum permitted yield of 50

hectoliters (hl) per hectare (ha). With the aid of global warming and vigorous rootstocks, many Bordeaux vineyards can easily surpass 60 hl/ha, with some estates taking advantage of the legal loophole of plafond limite de classement ("ceiling limit classification") that permits higher yields during "exceptional" years. This has had an adverse effect on the quality of production from some producers who regularly use grapes harvested at excessive yields. In recent years there has been more of an emphasis on keeping yields low, particularly for an estate's Grand vin.[3]

Other French regions

The Bordeaux wine region accounts for more than 60% of the Cabernet Sauvignon grown in France. Outside of Bordeaux, Cabernet Sauvignon is found in varying quantities throughout

irrigation to compensate for the climate.[1]

Italy

In the 1970s, Italian winemakers started to blend Cabernet Sauvignon with Sangiovese (pictured) to create wines known as "Super Tuscans".

Cabernet Sauvignon has a long history in

Indicazione Geografica Tipica (IGT) wines that are made outside DOC perimeters in certain regions. For most of its history, the grape has been viewed with suspicion as a "foreign influence" that distracts from the native grape varieties. After decades of experimentation, the general view of Cabernet Sauvignon has improved as more winemakers find ways to complement their native grape varieties with Cabernet as a blending component.[3]

A Cabernet Sauvignon/Barbera blend from the Langhe DOC of Piedmont

In Piedmont, the grape was sometimes used as an "illegal" blending partner with

Calabria.[3]

Cabernet Sauvignon has had a controversial history in

alcohol level around 14% but can still maintain notable acidity levels. Cabernet Sauvignon can dominate the blend when blended with Sangiovese in significant quantities, with most Tuscan producers aiming to find a particular balance that suits their desired style.[3]

Other Old World producers

In Spain, Cabernet Sauvignon is often blended with Tempranillo.(pictured)

The introduction of Cabernet Sauvignon to

Rioja region when the Marqués de Riscal planted cuttings from Bordeaux in the nineteenth century. It was not until the 1960s, however, before cultivation took off. By 2015, it was the sixth most widely planted red wine grape in Spain. Today it is permitted in about half of the Spanish DOPs (Denominación de Origen Protegida). The grape is most prominent in the Catalan wine region of Penedès, where its use was revived by the estates of Bodegas Torres and Jean León. There the grape is often blended with Tempranillo. It is also primarily a blending grape in the Ribera del Duero, but producers in Navarra have found some international acclaim for their varietal wines.[5]

In the

California

A Napa Valley Cabernet Sauvignon

In California, Cabernet Sauvignon has developed its characteristic style and reputation, which is recognizable in the world's market. Production and plantings of the grape in California are similar in quantity to those of Bordeaux.

black olive notes while Napa County Cabernets are characterized by their strong black fruit flavours.[5]

In California, the main stylistic difference in Cabernet Sauvignon is between hillside/mountain vineyards and those on flatter terrains like valley floors or some areas of the

full-bodied wines with alcohol levels regularly above the Bordeaux average of 12–13%—often in excess of 14%.[5]

Old vine Cabernet Sauvignon at Chateau Montelena in Napa Valley. As the grapes mature, they will darken to a bluish-purple hue.

The use of oak in California Cabernet has a long history, with many producers favouring the use of new oak barrels heavily composed of American oak. After the early 1980s' unsuccessful trend to create more "

food friendly" wines with less ripeness and less oak influence, winemakers' focus shifted back to oak influence. Still, producers were more inclined to limit and lighten the use of oak barrels, with many turning to French oak or a combination of new and older oak barrels.[3]

Washington State

A Washington Cabernet Sauvignon from the Columbia Valley AVA

According to the Washington State Wine Commission, Cabernet Sauvignon is the most widely planted red grape variety in Washington state. It is generally found in the warmer sites of the Columbia Valley. The vines are choice plantings for growers due to their hardy vine stalks and resistance to the cold winter frost that is commonplace in Eastern Washington. Washington Cabernet Sauvignon is characterized by its fruitiness and easy drinking styles that are not overly tannic.[3] Recent Washington American Viticultural Areas (AVAs) that have seen some success with their Cabernet Sauvignons include Red Mountain, Walla Walla Valley and parts of the Yakima Valley AVA near the Tri-Cities region.[5]

Elsewhere in the United States

In

Oregon, there are small quantities of Cabernet Sauvignon planted in the warmer southern regions of the Umpqua and Rogue Valleys.[3]

It has also started to develop a presence in the

Ohio, Texas and Virginia wine industries, particularly in the Texas Hill Country and North Fork of Long Island AVAs. Cabernet Sauvignon is made in varietal and blended styles throughout the United States. Under the American system, varietal Cabernet Sauvignon can include up to 25% other grapes.[5]

South America

A Cabernet Sauvignon from Uruguay

Cabernet Sauvignon is grown in nearly every South American country, including

Uruguay. In Chile, the wines were historically limited by the excessively high yields commonplace throughout the country. As producers began to concentrate on limiting yields, regional differences that distinguished Chilean Cabernets began to emerge. For vineyard plantings along flat river valleys, the region's climate is the most important consideration; as plantings move to higher elevations and along hillsides, soil type is a more significant concern. The wines of the Aconcagua region are noted for their ripe fruit but closed, tight structure that needs some time in the bottle to develop. In the Maipo Valley, Cabernet Sauvignon wines are characterized by their pervasive blackcurrant fruit and an earthy, dusty note. In warmer regions, such as the Colchagua Province and around Curicó, the grapes ripen more fully; they produce wines with rich fruit flavours that can be perceived as sweet due to the ripeness of the fruit. The acidity levels of these wines will be lower, and the tannins will also be softer, making the wines more approachable at a younger age.[3]

Argentina

In Argentina, Cabernet Sauvignon lags behind

Mendoza Province; the wines coming from vineyards planted at higher altitudes garner some international attention.[5]

Australia

terra rosa of Australia's Coonawarra
region contributes to a unique style of Cabernet Sauvignon.
An Australian Cabernet Sauvignon

In the 1970s, the Coonawarra region first brought international attention to Australian Cabernet Sauvignons with intense fruit flavours and subtle minty notes. The Margaret River region soon followed with tightly structured wines with pronounced black fruit notes. In the 1980s, Australia followed California's contemporary trend in producing lighter, more "food friendly" wines with alcohol levels around 11-12% percent; by the early 1990s, the styles changed again to focus on balance and riper fruit flavours. Today Cabernet Sauvignon is the second most widely planted red wine grape in Australia, following Shiraz, with which it is often blended. It can be found in several wine regions, with many large producers using grapes from several states. Notable regional differences characterize Australian Cabernet Sauvignon: in addition to the wine styles of Coonawarra and Margaret River, the Barossa Valley produces big, full-bodied wines while the nearby, cooler Clare Valley produces wines with more concentrated fruit, and wines of the Victorian wine region of the Yarra Valley are noted for their balance in acidity, tannins and fruit flavours.[3]

Other New World producers

Since the end of apartheid, the South African wine industry has been working to reestablish itself in the world's wine markets, with many regions actively promoting their Cabernet Sauvignon. Today it is the most widely planted red wine grape in South Africa. It is produced in varietal and blended styles; some producers favour a Bordeaux blend, while others follow the Australian example of blending with Syrah.[1] Early examples of South African Cabernet Sauvignon were produced by grapes planted in vineyard locations that were cooler than ideal, creating very herbaceous wines with the distinctive "green bell pepper" notes. In the mid-1990s, there was more emphasis on harvesting at fuller ripeness, and new clones were introduced that produced riper, sweeter fruit. As the vines age and better vineyards locations are identified, regional styles are starting to emerge among South African Cabernet Sauvignons: the Stellenbosch region is noted for heavy, full-bodied wines while Constantia's wines are characterized by their herbal and minty flavours.[3]

In New Zealand, the climate has been a challenge in finding wine regions suitable for producing Cabernet Sauvignon. Most of the industry focus has centred on the

foliage, and low vigour rootstock and pruning combine to achieve lower yields and have started to produce better results. The grape is sometimes blended with Merlot to help compensate for climate and terroir. Other regions in New Zealand have sprung up with a renewed focus on producing distinctive New Zealand Cabernet Sauvignon:[3] The Gimblett Road and Havelock North regions of Hawkes Bay, with their warm gravel soils, have started to achieve notice as well as Waiheke Island near Auckland.[5] Overall the grape lags far behind Pinot noir in New Zealand's red wine grape plantings.[1]

Canada produces cabernet sauvignon varietals and "Bordeaux blends", and some of its cabernet sauvignon is used to create ice wine.[citation needed]

China

The first vintage produced by Emma Gao at Silver Heights Winery in Ningxia was praised by Chinese and international winemakers, and two of her red wines are among the best-known produced in China.[19][20] They are a Cabernet Sauvignon ‘Emma’s Reserve’ and a Bordeaux blend ‘The Summit’.[20]

Popularity and criticism

In the past century, Cabernet Sauvignon has enjoyed a swell of popularity as one of the

Port production.[3]

Wine styles

New World Cabernet Sauvignons, such as this one from California's Lodi region, often have more pronounced, ripe fruit flavors than Old World wines from regions like Bordeaux.

The grapes' ripeness strongly influences Cabernet Sauvignon's style at harvest. When more on the unripe side, the grapes are high in

black cherries and plum. The aroma of blackcurrants is one of the most distinctive and characteristic elements of Cabernet Sauvignon that is present in virtually every style of wine across the globe. Styles from various regions and producers may also have eucalyptus, mint and tobacco aromas. As the wines age, they can sometimes develop aromas associated with cedar, cigar boxes and pencil shavings. New World examples generally have more pronounced fruity notes, while Old World wines can be more austere with heightened earthy notes.[3]

Ability to age

In the 19th and 20th centuries, Cabernet Sauvignon's reputation was built on its ability to age and develop in the bottle. In addition to softening some of their austere tannins, as Cabernet wines age, new flavours and aromas can emerge and add to the wines' complexity. Historically this was a trait characterized by Bordeaux, with some premium examples in favourable vintages having the potential to last for over a century, but producers across the globe have developed styles that could age and develop for several decades. Even with the ability to age, some Cabernet Sauvignon wines can still be approachable a few years after the vintage. In Bordeaux, the tannins of the wines tend to soften after ten years and can typically last for at least another, decade-sometimes longer, depending on the producer and vintage. Some Spanish and Italian Cabernet Sauvignons will need similar time as Bordeaux to develop, but most examples are typically made to be drunk earlier.[3]

While New World Cabernets are considered drinkable earlier than Bordeaux, premium producers such as the Californian cult wines will produce wines that need time to age and could potentially develop for two to three decades. Overall, the majority of Californian Cabernets are meant to be approachable after only a couple of years in the bottle but can still have the potential to improve further over time. Similarly, many premium Australian cabernets will also need at least ten years to develop though many are approachable after two to five years. New Zealand wines are typically meant to be consumed young and will often maintain their green herbal flavours even with extended bottle ageing. South American Cabernets have very pronounced fruit flavours when they are young, and the best-made examples will keep some of those flavours as they age. South African wines tend to favour more Old World styles and typically require six to eight years of ageing before developing further flavours.[3]

Pairing with food

Fatty red meats, such as lamb, pair well with Cabernet Sauvignon due to the ability of proteins and fats to negate some of the tannic qualities of the wine.

Cabernet Sauvignon is a very bold and assertive wine that has the potential to overwhelm light and delicate dishes. The wine's high tannin content, oak influences, and high alcohol levels associated with many regional styles play important roles in influencing how well the wine matches different foods. When Cabernet Sauvignon is young, all those elements are at their peak, but as the wine ages, it mellows; possibilities for different food pairings open up. In most circumstances, matching the weight (alcohol level and body) of the wine to the heaviness of the food is an important consideration. Cabernet Sauvignons with high alcohol levels do not pair well with spicy foods due to hotness levels of the

ahi tuna.[5]

dill weed, brown sugar, nutmeg and vanilla—can also pair well.[5]

A Californian Cabernet Sauvignon from the Central Coast AVA

The different styles of Cabernet Sauvignon from other regions can also influence how well the wine matches up with certain foods. Old World wines like Bordeaux have earthier influences and will pair better with

Brie, but full-flavoured or blue cheeses will typically compete too much with the flavours of Cabernet Sauvignon to be a complementary pairing.[5]

Health benefits

In late 2006, the Federation of American Societies for Experimental Biology published the result of studies conducted at the

See also

References

  1. ^ .
  2. ^ "Distribution of the world's grapevine varieties" (PDF). oiv.int. International Organisation of Vine and Wine. 28 February 2018. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2018-03-01. Retrieved 1 March 2018.
  3. ^ .
  4. ^ .
  5. ^ Carpenter, Kasey (2016-11-18). "Scientists Unravel Cabernet Sauvignon's Genome". Wine Spectator. Retrieved 2016-11-30.
  6. ^ Alley, L. (September 30, 2007). "New French Wine Grape Arrives in US Market". The Wine Spectator. p. 17.
  7. ^ Cleggett wines: Archived 2007-08-29 at the Wayback Machine history and pictures of the gris and white mutants; Transcript of ABC show about bronze and white mutants
  8. S2CID 38970718
    .
  9. ^ "Cienna Factsheet" (PDF). CSIRO. Archived from the original (PDF) on 27 September 2007. Retrieved 22 July 2019.
  10. ^ Vitis International Variety Catalogue (VIVC) Souvignier gris Archived 2014-02-03 at the Wayback Machine Accessed: January 20th, 2014
  11. ^ Rutherford Dust Society "About us" Accessed: February 22nd, 2008
  12. .
  13. ^ D. Mouer "Meritage: What's in a Name Archived 2013-05-25 at the Wayback Machine" Wine Maker Magazine, August 2004
  14. ^ For contrast, Sémillon has a 1:25 pip to pulp ratio.
  15. .
  16. ^ "Q&A: Emma Gao, winemaker-director, Silver Heights - Harpers Wine & Spirit Trade News". harpers.co.uk. Retrieved 2022-02-18.
  17. ^ a b "Top 10 most influential women in China's wine trade". The Drinks Business. 2019-03-08. Retrieved 2022-02-17.
  18. Wine Spectator Magazine
    , December 31, 2006, pg 17
  19. PMID 16162502
    .
  20. .

External links