Caffeine
Clinical data | |
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Pronunciation | /kæˈfiːn, ˈkæfiːn/ |
Other names | Guaranine Methyltheobromine 1,3,7-Trimethylxanthine 7-methyltheophylline[1] Theine |
AHFS/Drugs.com | Monograph |
License data | |
Pregnancy category |
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Dependence liability | Physical: Moderate 13% and variable low–high 10-73%[2] |
Legal status | |
Legal status |
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Pharmacokinetic data | |
Bioavailability | 99%[4] |
Protein binding | 10–36%[5] |
Metabolism | Primary: CYP1A2[5] Minor: CYP2E1,[5] CYP3A4,[5] CYP2C8,[5] CYP2C9[5] |
Metabolites | • Paraxanthine 84% • Theobromine 12% • Theophylline 4% |
Onset of action | 45 minutes–1 hour[4][6] |
Elimination half-life | Adults: 3–7 hours[5] Infants (full term): 8 hours[5] Infants (premature): 100 hours[5] |
Duration of action | 3–4 hours[4] |
Excretion | Urine (100%) |
Identifiers | |
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JSmol) | |
Density | 1.23 g/cm3 |
Melting point | 235 to 238 °C (455 to 460 °F) (anhydrous)[7][8] |
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Data page | |
Caffeine (data page) |
Caffeine is a
Caffeine is a bitter, white crystalline
Caffeine has both positive and negative health effects. It can treat and prevent the premature infant breathing disorders
Caffeine is classified by the US
Uses
Medical
Caffeine is used for both prevention
Caffeine is used as a primary treatment for apnea of prematurity,[39] but not prevention.[40][41] It is also used for orthostatic hypotension treatment.[42][41][43]
Some people use caffeine-containing beverages such as coffee or tea to try to treat their
The addition of caffeine (100–130 mg) to commonly prescribed pain relievers such as
Consumption of caffeine after abdominal surgery shortens the time to recovery of normal bowel function and shortens length of hospital stay.[47]
Caffeine was formerly used as a second-line treatment for
Enhancing performance
Cognitive performance
Caffeine is a
Caffeine can delay or prevent sleep and improves task performance during sleep deprivation.[53] Shift workers who use caffeine make fewer mistakes that could result from drowsiness.[54]
Caffeine in a dose dependent manner increases alertness in both fatigued and normal individuals.[55]
A
Physical performance
Caffeine is a proven
Caffeine improves muscular strength and power,[65] and may enhance muscular endurance.[66] Caffeine also enhances performance on anaerobic tests.[67] Caffeine consumption before constant load exercise is associated with reduced perceived exertion. While this effect is not present during exercise-to-exhaustion exercise, performance is significantly enhanced. This is congruent with caffeine reducing perceived exertion, because exercise-to-exhaustion should end at the same point of fatigue.[68] Caffeine also improves power output and reduces time to completion in aerobic time trials,[69] an effect positively (but not exclusively) associated with longer duration exercise.[70]
Specific populations
Adults
For the general population of healthy adults, Health Canada advises a daily intake of no more than 400 mg.[71] This limit was found to be safe by a 2017 systematic review on caffeine toxicology.[72]
Children
In healthy children, moderate caffeine intake under 400 mg produces effects that are "modest and typically innocuous".
Age range | Maximum recommended daily caffeine intake |
---|---|
4–6 | 45 mg (slightly more than in 355 ml (12 fl. oz) of a typical caffeinated soft drink) |
7–9 | 62.5 mg |
10–12 | 85 mg (about 1⁄2 cup of coffee) |
Adolescents
Health Canada has not developed advice for adolescents because of insufficient data. However, they suggest that daily caffeine intake for this age group be no more than 2.5 mg/kg body weight. This is because the maximum adult caffeine dose may not be appropriate for light-weight adolescents or for younger adolescents who are still growing. The daily dose of 2.5 mg/kg body weight would not cause adverse health effects in the majority of adolescent caffeine consumers. This is a conservative suggestion since older and heavier-weight adolescents may be able to consume adult doses of caffeine without experiencing adverse effects.[71]
Pregnancy and breastfeeding
The metabolism of caffeine is reduced in pregnancy, especially in the third trimester, and the half-life of caffeine during pregnancy can be increased up to 15 hours (as compared to 2.5 to 4.5 hours in non-pregnant adults).[78] Evidence regarding the effects of caffeine on pregnancy and for breastfeeding are inconclusive.[25] There is limited primary and secondary advice for, or against, caffeine use during pregnancy and its effects on the fetus or newborn.[25]
The UK
There are conflicting reports in the scientific literature about caffeine use during pregnancy.
Adverse effects
Physiological
Caffeine in coffee and other
Acute ingestion of caffeine in large doses (at least 250–300 mg, equivalent to the amount found in 2–3 cups of coffee or 5–8 cups of tea) results in a short-term stimulation of urine output in individuals who have been deprived of caffeine for a period of days or weeks.[90] This increase is due to both a diuresis (increase in water excretion) and a natriuresis (increase in saline excretion); it is mediated via proximal tubular adenosine receptor blockade.[91] The acute increase in urinary output may increase the risk of dehydration. However, chronic users of caffeine develop a tolerance to this effect and experience no increase in urinary output.[92][93][94]
Psychological
Minor undesired symptoms from caffeine ingestion not sufficiently severe to warrant a psychiatric diagnosis are common and include mild anxiety, jitteriness, insomnia, increased sleep latency, and reduced coordination.
In moderate doses, caffeine has been associated with reduced symptoms of
Some textbooks state that caffeine is a mild euphoriant,[103][104][105] while others state that it is not a euphoriant.[106][107]
Caffeine-induced anxiety disorder is a subclass of the DSM-5 diagnosis of substance/medication-induced anxiety disorder.[108]
Reinforcement disorders
Addiction
Whether caffeine can result in an addictive disorder depends on how addiction is defined. Compulsive caffeine consumption under any circumstances has not been observed, and caffeine is therefore not generally considered addictive.
Caffeine does not appear to be a reinforcing stimulus, and some degree of aversion may actually occur, with people preferring placebo over caffeine in a study on drug abuse liability published in an NIDA research monograph.[112] Some state that research does not provide support for an underlying biochemical mechanism for caffeine addiction.[27][113][114][115] Other research states it can affect the reward system.[116]
"Caffeine addiction" was added to the ICDM-9 and ICD-10. However, its addition was contested with claims that this diagnostic model of caffeine addiction is not supported by evidence.[27][117][118] The American Psychiatric Association's DSM-5 does not include the diagnosis of a caffeine addiction but proposes criteria for the disorder for more study.[108][119]
Dependence and withdrawal
Withdrawal can cause mild to clinically significant distress or impairment in daily functioning. The frequency at which this occurs is self-reported at 11%, but in lab tests only half of the people who report withdrawal actually experience it, casting doubt on many claims of dependence.[120] and most cases of caffeine withdrawal were 13% in the moderate sense. moderately physical dependence and withdrawal symptoms may occur upon abstinence, with greater than 100 mg caffeine per day, although these symptoms last no longer than a day.[27] Some symptoms associated with psychological dependence may also occur during withdrawal.[2] The diagnostic criteria for caffeine withdrawal require a previous prolonged daily use of caffeine.[121] Following 24 hours of a marked reduction in consumption, a minimum of 3 of these signs or symptoms is required to meet withdrawal criteria: difficulty concentrating, depressed mood/irritability, flu-like symptoms, headache, and fatigue.[121] Additionally, the signs and symptoms must disrupt important areas of functioning and are not associated with effects of another condition.[121]
The ICD-11 includes caffeine dependence as a distinct diagnostic category, which closely mirrors the DSM-5's proposed set of criteria for "caffeine-use disorder".[119][122] Caffeine use disorder refers to dependence on caffeine characterized by failure to control caffeine consumption despite negative physiological consequences.[119][122] The APA, which published the DSM-5, acknowledged that there was sufficient evidence in order to create a diagnostic model of caffeine dependence for the DSM-5, but they noted that the clinical significance of the disorder is unclear.[123] Due to this inconclusive evidence on clinical significance, the DSM-5 classifies caffeine-use disorder as a "condition for further study".[119]
Tolerance to the effects of caffeine occurs for caffeine-induced elevations in blood pressure and the subjective feelings of nervousness. Sensitization, the process whereby effects become more prominent with use, occurs for positive effects such as feelings of alertness and wellbeing.[120] Tolerance varies for daily, regular caffeine users and high caffeine users. High doses of caffeine (750 to 1200 mg/day spread throughout the day) have been shown to produce complete tolerance to some, but not all of the effects of caffeine. Doses as low as 100 mg/day, such as a 6 oz (170 g) cup of coffee or two to three 12 oz (340 g) servings of caffeinated soft-drink, may continue to cause sleep disruption, among other intolerances. Non-regular caffeine users have the least caffeine tolerance for sleep disruption.[124] Some coffee drinkers develop tolerance to its undesired sleep-disrupting effects, but others apparently do not.[125]
Risk of other diseases
A neuroprotective effect of caffeine against Alzheimer's disease and dementia is possible but the evidence is inconclusive.[126][127]
Regular consumption of caffeine may protect people from
Caffeine may lessen the severity of
Caffeine increases intraocular pressure in those with glaucoma but does not appear to affect normal individuals.[134]
The DSM-5 also includes other caffeine-induced disorders consisting of caffeine-induced anxiety disorder, caffeine-induced sleep disorder and unspecified caffeine-related disorders. The first two disorders are classified under "Anxiety Disorder" and "Sleep-Wake Disorder" because they share similar characteristics. Other disorders that present with significant distress and impairment of daily functioning that warrant clinical attention but do not meet the criteria to be diagnosed under any specific disorders are listed under "Unspecified Caffeine-Related Disorders".[135]
Energy crash
Caffeine is reputed to cause a fall in energy several hours after drinking, but this is not well researched.[136][137][138][139]
Overdose
PMID 30893206. You can help by adding to it . (November 2019) |
Consumption of 1–1.5 grams (1,000–1,500 mg) per day is associated with a condition known as caffeinism.[141] Caffeinism usually combines caffeine dependency with a wide range of unpleasant symptoms including nervousness, irritability, restlessness, insomnia, headaches, and palpitations after caffeine use.[142]
Caffeine overdose can result in a state of central nervous system overstimulation known as caffeine intoxication, a clinically significant temporary condition that develops during, or shortly after, the consumption of caffeine.[143] This syndrome typically occurs only after ingestion of large amounts of caffeine, well over the amounts found in typical caffeinated beverages and caffeine tablets (e.g., more than 400–500 mg at a time). According to the DSM-5, caffeine intoxication may be diagnosed if five (or more) of the following symptoms develop after recent consumption of caffeine: restlessness, nervousness, excitement, insomnia, flushed face, diuresis, gastrointestinal disturbance, muscle twitching, rambling flow of thought and speech, tachycardia or cardiac arrhythmia, periods of inexhaustibility, and psychomotor agitation.[144]
According to the International Classification of Diseases (ICD-11), cases of very high caffeine intake (e.g. > 5 g) may result in caffeine intoxication with symptoms including mania, depression, lapses in judgment, disorientation, disinhibition, delusions, hallucinations or psychosis, and rhabdomyolysis.[143]
Energy drinks
High caffeine consumption in energy drinks (at least one liter or 320 mg of caffeine) was associated with short-term cardiovascular side effects including hypertension, prolonged QT interval, and heart palpitations. These cardiovascular side effects were not seen with smaller amounts of caffeine consumption in energy drinks (less than 200 mg).[78]
Severe intoxication
As of 2007[update] there is no known antidote or reversal agent for caffeine intoxication. Treatment of mild caffeine intoxication is directed toward symptom relief; severe intoxication may require
Lethal dose
Death from caffeine ingestion appears to be rare, and most commonly caused by an intentional overdose of medications.
Interactions
Caffeine is a substrate for CYP1A2, and interacts with many substances through this and other mechanisms.[155]
Alcohol
According to DSST, alcohol causes a decrease in performance on their standardized tests, and caffeine causes a significant improvement.[156] When alcohol and caffeine are consumed jointly, the effects of the caffeine are changed, but the alcohol effects remain the same.[157] For example, consuming additional caffeine does not reduce the effect of alcohol.[157] However, the jitteriness and alertness given by caffeine is decreased when additional alcohol is consumed.[157] Alcohol consumption alone reduces both inhibitory and activational aspects of behavioral control. Caffeine antagonizes the activational aspect of behavioral control, but has no effect on the inhibitory behavioral control.[158] The Dietary Guidelines for Americans recommend avoidance of concomitant consumption of alcohol and caffeine, as taking them together may lead to increased alcohol consumption, with a higher risk of alcohol-associated injury.
Tobacco
Smoking tobacco increases caffeine clearance by 56%.[159] Cigarette smoking induces the cytochrome P450 1A2 enzyme that breaks down caffeine, which may lead to increased caffeine tolerance and coffee consumption for regular smokers.[160]
Birth control
Medications
Caffeine sometimes increases the effectiveness of some medications, such as those for
The pharmacological effects of adenosine may be blunted in individuals taking large quantities of
Pharmacology
Pharmacodynamics
In the absence of caffeine and when a person is awake and alert, little
Receptor and ion channel targets
Caffeine is an
Antagonism of adenosine receptors by caffeine also stimulates the
Because caffeine is both water- and lipid-soluble, it readily crosses the
In addition to its activity at adenosine receptors, caffeine is an
Effects on striatal dopamine
While caffeine does not directly bind to any
Caffeine also causes the release of dopamine in the
Enzyme targets
Caffeine, like other
Pharmacokinetics
Caffeine from coffee or other beverages is absorbed by the small intestine within 45 minutes of ingestion and distributed throughout all bodily tissues.
Caffeine's
Caffeine is
- Paraxanthine (84%): Increases lipolysis, leading to elevated glycerol and free fatty acid levels in blood plasma.
- Theobromine (12%): Dilates blood vessels and increases urine volume. Theobromine is also the principal alkaloid in the cocoa bean (chocolate).
- therapeutic dose of theophylline, however, is many times greater than the levels attained from caffeine metabolism.[45]
1,3,7-Trimethyluric acid is a minor caffeine metabolite.[5] 7-Methylxanthine is also a metabolite of caffeine.[192][193] Each of the above metabolites is further metabolized and then excreted in the urine. Caffeine can accumulate in individuals with severe liver disease, increasing its half-life.[194]
A 2011 review found that increased caffeine intake was associated with a variation in two genes that increase the rate of caffeine catabolism. Subjects who had this
Chemistry
Pure
The
Synthesis
The biosynthesis of caffeine is an example of convergent evolution among different species.[205][206][207]
Caffeine may be synthesized in the lab starting with dimethylurea and malonic acid.[clarification needed][203][204][208]
Commercial supplies of caffeine are not usually manufactured synthetically because the chemical is readily available as a byproduct of decaffeination.[209]
Decaffeination
Extraction of caffeine from coffee, to produce caffeine and decaffeinated coffee, can be performed using a number of solvents. Following are main methods:
- Water extraction: Coffee beans are soaked in water. The water, which contains many other compounds in addition to caffeine and contributes to the flavor of coffee, is then passed through activated charcoal, which removes the caffeine. The water can then be put back with the beans and evaporated dry, leaving decaffeinated coffee with its original flavor. Coffee manufacturers recover the caffeine and resell it for use in soft drinks and over-the-counter caffeine tablets.[210]
- Supercritical carbon dioxide extraction: atm. Under these conditions, CO2 is in a "supercritical" state: It has gaslike properties that allow it to penetrate deep into the beans but also liquid-like properties that dissolve 97–99% of the caffeine. The caffeine-laden CO2 is then sprayed with high-pressure water to remove the caffeine. The caffeine can then be isolated by charcoal adsorption (as above) or by distillation, recrystallization, or reverse osmosis.[210]
- Extraction by organic solvents: Certain organic solvents such as ethyl acetate present much less health and environmental hazard than chlorinated and aromatic organic solvents used formerly. Another method is to use triglyceride oils obtained from spent coffee grounds.[210]
"Decaffeinated" coffees do in fact contain caffeine in many cases – some commercially available decaffeinated coffee products contain considerable levels. One study found that decaffeinated coffee contained 10 mg of caffeine per cup, compared to approximately 85 mg of caffeine per cup for regular coffee.[211]
Detection in body fluids
Caffeine can be quantified in blood, plasma, or serum to monitor therapy in
Analogs
Some analog substances have been created which mimic caffeine's properties with either function or structure or both. Of the latter group are the
Some other caffeine analogs:
Precipitation of tannins
Caffeine, as do other alkaloids such as cinchonine, quinine or strychnine, precipitates polyphenols and tannins. This property can be used in a quantitation method.[clarification needed][216]
Natural occurrence
Around thirty plant species are known to contain caffeine.[217] Common sources are the "beans" (seeds) of the two cultivated coffee plants, Coffea arabica and Coffea canephora (the quantity varies, but 1.3% is a typical value); and of the cocoa plant, Theobroma cacao; the leaves of the tea plant; and kola nuts. Other sources include the leaves of yaupon holly, South American holly yerba mate, and Amazonian holly guayusa; and seeds from Amazonian maple guarana berries. Temperate climates around the world have produced unrelated caffeine-containing plants.
Caffeine in plants acts as a natural pesticide: it can paralyze and kill predator insects feeding on the plant.[218] High caffeine levels are found in coffee seedlings when they are developing foliage and lack mechanical protection.[219] In addition, high caffeine levels are found in the surrounding soil of coffee seedlings, which inhibits seed germination of nearby coffee seedlings, thus giving seedlings with the highest caffeine levels fewer competitors for existing resources for survival.[220] Caffeine is stored in tea leaves in two places. Firstly, in the cell vacuoles where it is complexed with polyphenols. This caffeine probably is released into the mouth parts of insects, to discourage herbivory. Secondly, around the vascular bundles, where it probably inhibits pathogenic fungi from entering and colonizing the vascular bundles.[221] Caffeine in nectar may improve the reproductive success of the pollen producing plants by enhancing the reward memory of pollinators such as honey bees.[17]
The differing perceptions in the effects of ingesting beverages made from various plants containing caffeine could be explained by the fact that these beverages also contain varying mixtures of other
Products
Product | Serving size | Caffeine per serving ( mg )
|
Caffeine (mg/L) |
---|---|---|---|
Caffeine tablet (regular-strength) | 1 tablet | 100 | — |
Caffeine tablet (extra-strength) | 1 tablet | 200 | — |
Excedrin tablet
|
1 tablet | 65 | — |
Hershey's Special Dark (45% cacao content) | 1 bar (43 g or 1.5 oz) | 31 | — |
Hershey's Milk Chocolate (11% cacao content)
|
1 bar (43 g or 1.5 oz) | 10 | — |
Percolated coffee | 207 US fl oz )
|
80–135 | 386–652 |
Drip coffee
|
207 mL (7.0 US fl oz) | 115–175 | 555–845 |
Coffee, decaffeinated
|
207 mL (7.0 US fl oz) | 5–15 | 24–72 |
Coffee, espresso | 44–60 mL (1.5–2.0 US fl oz) | 100 | 1,691–2,254 |
Tea – black, green, and other types, – steeped for 3 min. | 177 mL (6.0 US fl oz) | 22–74[226][227] | 124–418 |
Guayakí yerba mate (loose leaf)
|
6 g (0.21 oz) | 85[228] | approx. 358 |
Coca-Cola | 355 mL (12.0 US fl oz) | 34 | 96 |
Mountain Dew | 355 mL (12.0 US fl oz) | 54 | 154 |
Pepsi Zero Sugar | 355 mL (12.0 US fl oz) | 69 | 194 |
Guaraná Antarctica | 350 mL (12 US fl oz) | 30 | 100 |
Jolt Cola | 695 mL (23.5 US fl oz) | 280 | 403 |
Red Bull | 250 mL (8.5 US fl oz) | 80 | 320 |
Coffee-flavored milk drink | 300–600 mL (10–20 US fl oz) | 33–197[229] | 66–354[229] |
Products containing caffeine include coffee, tea, soft drinks ("colas"), energy drinks, other beverages, chocolate,[230] caffeine tablets, other oral products, and inhalation products. According to a 2020 study in the United States, coffee is the major source of caffeine intake in middle-aged adults, while soft drinks and tea are the major sources in adolescents.[78] Energy drinks are more commonly consumed as a source of caffeine in adolescents as compared to adults.[78]
Beverages
Coffee
The world's primary source of caffeine is the coffee "bean" (the seed of the coffee plant), from which coffee is brewed. Caffeine content in coffee varies widely depending on the type of coffee bean and the method of preparation used;[231] even beans within a given bush can show variations in concentration. In general, one serving of coffee ranges from 80 to 100 milligrams, for a single shot (30 milliliters) of arabica-variety espresso, to approximately 100–125 milligrams for a cup (120 milliliters) of drip coffee.[232][233] Arabica coffee typically contains half the caffeine of the robusta variety.[231] In general, dark-roast coffee has very slightly less caffeine than lighter roasts because the roasting process reduces caffeine content of the bean by a small amount.[232][233]
Tea
Tea contains more caffeine than coffee by dry weight. A typical serving, however, contains much less, since less of the product is used as compared to an equivalent serving of coffee. Also contributing to caffeine content are growing conditions, processing techniques, and other variables. Thus, teas contain varying amounts of caffeine.[234]
Tea contains small amounts of theobromine and slightly higher levels of theophylline than coffee. Preparation and many other factors have a significant impact on tea, and color is a very poor indicator of caffeine content. Teas like the pale Japanese green tea, gyokuro, for example, contain far more caffeine than much darker teas like lapsang souchong, which has very little.[234]
Soft drinks and energy drinks
Caffeine is also a common ingredient of
Other beverages
- Mate is a drink popular in many parts of South America. Its preparation consists of filling a gourd with the leaves of the South American holly yerba mate, pouring hot but not boiling water over the leaves, and drinking with a straw, the bombilla, which acts as a filter so as to draw only the liquid and not the yerba leaves.[237]
- Guaranáfruit.
- The leaves of Ilex guayusa, the Ecuadorian holly tree, are placed in boiling water to make a guayusa tea.[238]
- The leaves of Ilex vomitoria, the yaupon holly tree, are placed in boiling water to make a yaupon tea.
- Commercially prepared coffee-flavoured milk beverages are popular in Australia.[239] Examples include Oak's Ice Coffee and Farmers Union Iced Coffee. The amount of caffeine in these beverages can vary widely. Caffeine concentrations can differ significantly from the manufacturer's claims.[229]
Chocolate
Chocolate derived from cocoa beans contains a small amount of caffeine. The weak stimulant effect of chocolate may be due to a combination of theobromine and theophylline, as well as caffeine.[240] A typical 28-gram serving of a milk chocolate bar has about as much caffeine as a cup of decaffeinated coffee. By weight, dark chocolate has one to two times the amount of caffeine as coffee: 80–160 mg per 100 g. Higher percentages of cocoa such as 90% amount to 200 mg per 100 g approximately and thus, a 100-gram 85% cocoa chocolate bar contains about 195 mg caffeine.[224]
Tablets
Tablets offer several advantages over coffee, tea, and other caffeinated beverages, including convenience, known dosage, and avoidance of concomitant intake of sugar, acids, and fluids. A use of caffeine in this form is said to improve mental alertness.[241] These tablets are commonly used by students studying for their exams and by people who work or drive for long hours.[242]
Other oral products
One U.S. company is marketing oral dissolvable caffeine strips.[243] Another intake route is SpazzStick, a caffeinated lip balm.[244] Alert Energy Caffeine Gum was introduced in the United States in 2013, but was voluntarily withdrawn after an announcement of an investigation by the FDA of the health effects of added caffeine in foods.[245]
Inhalants
Similar to an
Combinations with other drugs
- Some beverages combine United States Food and Drug Administration has classified caffeine added to malt liquor beverages as an "unsafe food additive".[249]
- Ya ba contains a combination of methamphetamine and caffeine.
- Painkillers such as propyphenazone/paracetamol/caffeine combine caffeine with an analgesic.
History
Discovery and spread of use
According to Chinese legend, the
The earliest credible evidence of either coffee drinking or knowledge of the coffee plant appears in the middle of the fifteenth century, in the
Kola nut use appears to have ancient origins. It is chewed in many West African cultures, in both private and social settings, to restore vitality and ease hunger pangs.[254]
The earliest evidence of
Xocolatl was introduced to
The leaves and stems of the yaupon holly (
Chemical identification, isolation, and synthesis
In 1819, the German chemist Friedlieb Ferdinand Runge isolated relatively pure caffeine for the first time; he called it "Kaffebase" (i.e., a base that exists in coffee).[260] According to Runge, he did this at the behest of Johann Wolfgang von Goethe.[a][262] In 1821, caffeine was isolated both by the French chemist Pierre Jean Robiquet and by another pair of French chemists, Pierre-Joseph Pelletier and Joseph Bienaimé Caventou, according to Swedish chemist Jöns Jacob Berzelius in his yearly journal. Furthermore, Berzelius stated that the French chemists had made their discoveries independently of any knowledge of Runge's or each other's work.[263] However, Berzelius later acknowledged Runge's priority in the extraction of caffeine, stating:[264] "However, at this point, it should not remain unmentioned that Runge (in his Phytochemical Discoveries, 1820, pages 146–147) specified the same method and described caffeine under the name Caffeebase a year earlier than Robiquet, to whom the discovery of this substance is usually attributed, having made the first oral announcement about it at a meeting of the Pharmacy Society in Paris."
Pelletier's article on caffeine was the first to use the term in print (in the French form Caféine from the French word for coffee: café).[265] It corroborates Berzelius's account:
Caffeine, noun (feminine). Crystallizable substance discovered in coffee in 1821 by Mr. Robiquet. During the same period – while they were searching for quinine in coffee because coffee is considered by several doctors to be a medicine that reduces fevers and because coffee belongs to the same family as the cinchona [quinine] tree – on their part, Messrs. Pelletier and Caventou obtained caffeine; but because their research had a different goal and because their research had not been finished, they left priority on this subject to Mr. Robiquet. We do not know why Mr. Robiquet has not published the analysis of coffee which he read to the Pharmacy Society. Its publication would have allowed us to make caffeine better known and give us accurate ideas of coffee's composition ...
Robiquet was one of the first to isolate and describe the properties of pure caffeine,[266] whereas Pelletier was the first to perform an elemental analysis.[267]
In 1827, M. Oudry isolated "théine" from tea,[268] but in 1838 it was proved by Mulder[269] and by Carl Jobst[270] that theine was actually the same as caffeine.
In 1895, German chemist
Historic regulations
Because it was recognized that coffee contained some compound that acted as a stimulant, first coffee and later also caffeine has sometimes been subject to regulation. For example, in the 16th century
at various times between 1756 and 1823.In 1911, caffeine became the focus of one of the earliest documented health scares, when the US government seized 40 barrels and 20 kegs of Coca-Cola syrup in Chattanooga, Tennessee, alleging the caffeine in its drink was "injurious to health".[280] Although the Supreme Court later ruled in favor of Coca-Cola in United States v. Forty Barrels and Twenty Kegs of Coca-Cola, two bills were introduced to the U.S. House of Representatives in 1912 to amend the Pure Food and Drug Act, adding caffeine to the list of "habit-forming" and "deleterious" substances, which must be listed on a product's label.[281]
Society and culture
Regulations
The examples and perspective in this section deal primarily with the United States and do not represent a worldwide view of the subject. (October 2020) |
United States
The US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) considers safe beverages containing less than 0.02% caffeine;
Consumption
Global consumption of caffeine has been estimated at 120,000 tonnes per year, making it the world's most popular psychoactive substance.[19] This amounts to an average of one serving of a caffeinated beverage for every person every day.[19] The consumption of caffeine has remained stable between 1997 and 2015.[286] Coffee, tea and soft drinks are the most important caffeine sources, with energy drinks contributing little to the total caffeine intake across all age groups.[286]
Religions
The Seventh-day Adventist Church asked for its members to "abstain from caffeinated drinks", but has removed this from baptismal vows (while still recommending abstention as policy).[287] Some from these religions believe that one is not supposed to consume a non-medical, psychoactive substance, or believe that one is not supposed to consume a substance that is addictive. The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints has said the following with regard to caffeinated beverages: "... the Church revelation spelling out health practices (Doctrine and Covenants 89) does not mention the use of caffeine. The Church's health guidelines prohibit alcoholic drinks, smoking or chewing of tobacco, and 'hot drinks' – taught by Church leaders to refer specifically to tea and coffee."[288]
Gaudiya Vaishnavas generally also abstain from caffeine, because they believe it clouds the mind and overstimulates the senses.[289] To be initiated under a guru, one must have had no caffeine, alcohol, nicotine or other drugs, for at least a year.[290]
Caffeinated beverages are widely consumed by Muslims. In the 16th century, some Muslim authorities made unsuccessful attempts to ban them as forbidden "intoxicating beverages" under Islamic dietary laws.[291][292]
Other organisms
The bacteria Pseudomonas putida CBB5 can live on pure caffeine and can cleave caffeine into carbon dioxide and ammonia.[293]
Caffeine is toxic to birds
Research
Caffeine has been used to double chromosomes in
See also
- Theobromine
- Theophylline
- Methylliberine
- Adderall
- Amphetamine
- Cocaine
- Nootropic
- Wakefulness-promoting agent
References
- Notes
- ^ In 1819, Runge was invited to show Goethe how belladonna caused dilation of the pupil, which Runge did, using a cat as an experimental subject. Goethe was so impressed with the demonstration that:
("After Goethe had expressed to me his greatest satisfaction regarding the account of the man [whom I'd] rescued [from serving in Napoleon's army] by apparent "black star" [i.e., amaurosis, blindness] as well as the other, he handed me a carton of coffee beans, which a Greek had sent him as a delicacy. 'You can also use these in your investigations,' said Goethe. He was right; for soon thereafter I discovered therein caffeine, which became so famous on account of its high nitrogen content.").[261]Nachdem Goethe mir seine größte Zufriedenheit sowol über die Erzählung des durch scheinbaren schwarzen Staar Geretteten, wie auch über das andere ausgesprochen, übergab er mir noch eine Schachtel mit Kaffeebohnen, die ein Grieche ihm als etwas Vorzügliches gesandt. "Auch diese können Sie zu Ihren Untersuchungen brauchen," sagte Goethe. Er hatte recht; denn bald darauf entdeckte ich darin das, wegen seines großen Stickstoffgehaltes so berühmt gewordene Coffein.
- Citations
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Results: Of 49 symptom categories identified, the following 10 fulfilled validity criteria: headache, fatigue, decreased energy/ activeness, decreased alertness, drowsiness, decreased contentedness, depressed mood, difficulty concentrating, irritability, and foggy/not clearheaded. In addition, flu-like symptoms, nausea/vomiting, and muscle pain/stiffness were judged likely to represent valid symptom categories. In experimental studies, the incidence of headache was 50% and the incidence of clinically significant distress or functional impairment was 13%. Typically, onset of symptoms occurred 12–24 h after abstinence, with peak intensity at 20–51 h, and for a duration of 2–9 days.
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Boiling Point
178 °C (sublimes)
Melting Point
238 DEG C (ANHYD) - ^ a b "Caffeine". ChemSpider. Royal Society of Chemistry. Archived from the original on 14 May 2019. Retrieved 16 October 2014.
Experimental Melting Point:
234–236 °C Alfa Aesar
237 °C Oxford University Chemical Safety Data
238 °C LKT Labs [C0221]
237 °C Jean-Claude Bradley Open Melting Point Dataset 14937
238 °C Jean-Claude Bradley Open Melting Point Dataset 17008, 17229, 22105, 27892, 27893, 27894, 27895
235.25 °C Jean-Claude Bradley Open Melting Point Dataset 27892, 27893, 27894, 27895
236 °C Jean-Claude Bradley Open Melting Point Dataset 27892, 27893, 27894, 27895
235 °C Jean-Claude Bradley Open Melting Point Dataset 6603
234–236 °C Alfa Aesar A10431, 39214
Experimental Boiling Point:
178 °C (Sublimes) Alfa Aesar
178 °C (Sublimes) Alfa Aesar 39214 - ^ S2CID 14277779.
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Caffeine does not usually affect performance in learning and memory tasks, although caffeine may occasionally have facilitatory or inhibitory effects on memory and learning. Caffeine facilitates learning in tasks in which information is presented passively; in tasks in which material is learned intentionally, caffeine has no effect. Caffeine facilitates performance in tasks involving working memory to a limited extent, but hinders performance in tasks that heavily depend on this, and caffeine appears to improve memory performance under suboptimal alertness. Most studies, however, found improvements in reaction time. The ingestion of caffeine does not seem to affect long-term memory. ... Its indirect action on arousal, mood and concentration contributes in large part to its cognitive enhancing properties.
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Physiologic and performance effects
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• Amphetamines seem to enhance athletic performance in anaerobic conditions 39 40
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Table 34-12... Caffeine Intoxication – Euphoria
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DESPITE THE IMPORTANCE OF NUMEROUS PSYCHOSOCIAL FACTORS, AT ITS CORE, DRUG ADDICTION INVOLVES A BIOLOGICAL PROCESS: the ability of repeated exposure to a drug of abuse to induce changes in a vulnerable brain that drive the compulsive seeking and taking of drugs, and loss of control over drug use, that define a state of addiction. ... A large body of literature has demonstrated that such ΔFosB induction in D1-type NAc neurons increases an animal's sensitivity to drug as well as natural rewards and promotes drug self-administration, presumably through a process of positive reinforcement
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Since this observation was first published, caffeine addiction has been added as an official diagnosis in ICDM 9. This decision is disputed by many and is not supported by any convincing body of experimental evidence. ... All of these observations strongly suggest that caffeine does not act on the dopaminergic structures related to addiction, nor does it improve performance by alleviating any symptoms of withdrawal - ^ "ICD-10 Version:2015". World Health Organization. 2015. Archived from the original on 2 November 2015. Retrieved 10 July 2015.
F15 Mental and behavioural disorders due to use of other stimulants, including caffeine ...
.2 Dependence syndrome
A cluster of behavioural, cognitive, and physiological phenomena that develop after repeated substance use and that typically include a strong desire to take the drug, difficulties in controlling its use, persisting in its use despite harmful consequences, a higher priority given to drug use than to other activities and obligations, increased tolerance, and sometimes a physical withdrawal state.
The dependence syndrome may be present for a specific psychoactive substance (e.g., tobacco, alcohol, or diazepam), for a class of substances (e.g., opioid drugs), or for a wider range of pharmacologically different psychoactive substances. [Includes:]
Chronic alcoholism
Dipsomania
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Caféin ist eine Materie im Kaffee, die zu gleicher Zeit, 1821, von Robiquet und Pelletier und Caventou entdekt wurde, von denen aber keine etwas darüber im Drucke bekannt machte.
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Bibliography
- Bersten I (1999). Coffee, Sex & Health: A history of anti-coffee crusaders and sexual hysteria. Sydney: Helian Books. ISBN 978-0-9577581-0-0.
- Carpenter M (2015). Caffeinated: How Our Daily Habit Helps, Hurts, and Hooks Us. Plume. ISBN 978-0142181805.
- ISBN 978-1-58799-088-5.
- ISBN 9780593296905.
External links
- GMD MS Spectrum
- Caffeine: ChemSub Online
- Caffeine at The Periodic Table of Videos(University of Nottingham)