California genocide
California genocide | |
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Part of the California State Militia, White American settlers |
The California genocide was a series of systematized killings of thousands of
The 1925 book Handbook of the Indians of California estimated that the Indigenous population of California decreased from perhaps as many as 150,000 in 1848 to 30,000 in 1870 and fell further to 16,000 in 1900. The decline was caused by disease, low birth rates, starvation, killings, and massacres. California Natives, particularly during the Gold Rush, were targeted in killings.
Since the 2000s several American academics and activist organizations, both
Background
Indigenous peoples
Prior to
The various tribal groups appear to have adapted to particular areas and territories. According to journalist Nathan Gilles, because of traditions practiced by the Native people of Northern California, they were able to "manage the threat of wildfires and cultivate traditional plants".
The Native people of California, according to sociologist Kari Norgaard, were "hunting and fishing for their food, weaving baskets using traditional techniques" and "carrying out important ceremonies to keep the world intact".[19] It was also recorded that the Indigenous people in California and across the continent had, and continue to, use "fire to enhance specific plant species, optimize hunting conditions, maintain open travel routes, and generally support the flourishing of the species upon which they depend, according to scholars[20] like the United States Forest Service ecologist and Karuk descendent Frank Lake".[19]
Contact
California was one of the last regions in the Americas to be colonized by Europeans. Catholic Spanish missionaries, led by
Spanish and Mexican rule were devastating for native populations. "As the missions grew, California's native population of Indians began a catastrophic decline."[21] Gregory Orfalea estimates that pre-contact population was reduced by 33% during the Spanish and Mexican regimes. Most of the decline stemmed from imported diseases, low birth rates, and the disruption of traditional ways of life, but violence was common, and some historians have charged that life in the missions was close to slavery.[10][22] However, according to George Tinker, a Native scholar, "The Native American population of coastal population was reduced by some 90 percent during seventy years under the sole proprietorship of Serra's mission system".[23]
According to journalist Ed Castillo, Serra spread the Christian faith among the Native population in a destructive way that caused their population to decline rapidly while he was in power. Castillo writes that "The Franciscans took it upon themselves to brutalize the Indians, and to rejoice in their death...They simply wanted the souls of these Indians, so they baptized them, and when they died, from disease or beatings... they were going to heaven, which was a cause of celebration".[18] According to Castillo, the Native American population were forced to abandon their "sustainable and complex civilization" as well as "their beliefs, their faith, and their way of life".[18]
Timeline
The following is a rough timeline of some of the key events and policies that contributed to the genocide. It is by no means comprehensive.
- 1769: Spanish colonizers establish a mission system in California, which leads to the forced conversion and enslavement of Native Americans.[24][25][26]
- 1821–1823: Mexico gains independence from Spain and takes control of California, continuing the Spanish government's policies of forced labor and conversion of Indigenous peoples.[27][26]
- 1846–48: The Mexican–American War led to the annexation of California by the United States. The settlers and U.S. military formed an alliance and were joined by some Indigenous people, although the military had "murdered many natives".[28][26]
- 1848: The discovery of gold in California leads to the influx of a massive horde of settlers, who form militias to kill and displace Indigenous peoples.[29][30][26]
- 1850: The California Act for the Government and Protection of Indians is passed, legalizing the enslavement of Native Americans and allowing settlers to capture and force them into labor.[31][32]
- 1851–52: The Mariposa War breaks out between white settlers and the Mariposa Battalion, resulting in the displacement and killing of Native Americans in the Sierra Nevada region.[33]
- 1851–69: California pays bounties for the killing of Native Americans.[34][35]
- 1860s: The federal government begins a policy of forced removal of Native Americans peoples to reservations, which leads to violence and displacement.[36]
- Late 1800s–early 1900s: Indigenous children are forcibly removed from their families by the California government and placed in boarding schools, where they are subjected to abuse and forced assimilation.[37][38][39]
- 1909: The California state government establishes the California Eugenics Record Office, which promotes the forced sterilization of people declared by the government to be "unfit", including "Black, Latino and Indigenous women who were incarcerated or in state institutions for disabilities".[40][41][42]
Response following statehood
Following the American Conquest of California from Mexico, and the influx of settlers due to the California Gold Rush in 1849, California state and federal authorities incited, aided, and financed the violence against the Native Americans. The California Natives were also sometimes contemptuously referred to as "Diggers", for their practice of digging up roots to eat.
The California Act for the Government and Protection of Indians was enacted in 1850 (amended 1860, repealed 1863). This law provided for "apprenticing" or indenturing Indian children to Whites, and also punished "vagrant" Indians by "hiring" them out to the highest bidder at a public auction if the Indian could not provide sufficient bond or bail. This legalized a form of slavery in California.[53] White settlers took 10,000 to 27,000 California Native Americans as forced laborers, including 4,000 to 7,000 children.[6][7]
I have the honor to report to the general commanding the
Owens River Expedition (1862), War of the Rebellion: OPERATIONS ON THE PACIFIC COAST. Chapter LXII.[54]
A notable early eyewitness testimony and account: "The Indians of California" (1864) is from John Ross Browne, Customs official and Inspector of Indian Affairs on the Pacific Coast. He systematically described the fraud, corruption, land theft, slavery, rape, and massacre perpetrated on a substantial portion of the aboriginal population.[55][56] This was confirmed by a contemporary, Superintendent Dorcas J. Spencer.[57]
Violence statistics
In 1943, a study by demographer
Archaeological evidence of violence and refugeeism in California
Research made in 2015 on native burial mounds in the San Francisco Bay area found that natives would move to different places in order to avoid genocide. The movement can be traced by the dating of the burial mounds since multiple native tribes found these burial mound spaces as places of religious and cultural freedom.[59]
The Amah Mutsun are a group of Indigenous peoples who were reported to be unable to pass on their traditions during this time, their practices remained untold for a number of years. People of this group, descendants, and archaeologists participate in conducting collaborative, ethnographic research to bring light to previous practices like burial practices and vegetation patterns.[60]
List of recorded massacres
Year | Date | Name | Current location | Description | Reported casualties | References |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1846 | April 6 | Sacramento River massacre | Sacramento River in Shasta County, Northern California | Captain John C. Frémont's men attacked a band of Indians (probably Wintun) on the Sacramento River in California, killing between 120 and 200 Indians. | 120–200 | [61] |
1846 | June | Sutter Buttes massacre | Sutter Buttes in Sutter County, Northern California | Captain John C. Frémont's men attacked a rancheria on the banks of the Sacramento River near Sutter Buttes, killing several Patwin people. | 14+ | [62] |
1846 | December | Pauma massacre | San Diego County , Southern California |
11 Californios captured at Rancho Pauma were killed as horse thieves by Indians at Warner Springs, California, leading to the Temecula massacre .
|
11 (settlers) | [63] |
1846 | December | Temecula massacre | Temecula in Riverside County, Southern California | 33 to 40 Pauma Massacre east of Temecula, California .
|
33–40 | [63] |
1847 | March | Rancheria Tulea massacre | Napa County , Northern California |
White slavers retaliate to a slave escape by massacring five Indians in Rancheria Tulea. | 5 | [62] |
1847 | March 29 | Kern and Sutter massacres | Tehama County , Northern California |
In response to a plea from White settlers to put an end to raids, U.S. Army Captain Edward Kern and rancher John Sutter led 50 men in attacks on three Indian villages. | 20 | [62] |
1847 | late June/early July | Konkow Maidu slaver massacre | Chico in Butte County, Northern California | Slavers kill 12–20 Konkow Maidu Indians in the process of capturing 30 members of the tribe for the purpose of forced slavery. | 12–20 | [62] |
1850 | May 15 | Bloody Island massacre | Clear Lake in Lake County, Northern California | Nathaniel Lyon and his U.S. Army detachment of cavalry killed 60–100 Pomo people on Bo-no-po-ti island near Clear Lake, (Lake Co., California); they believed the Pomo had killed two Clear Lake settlers who had been abusing and murdering Pomo people. (The Island Pomo had no connections to the enslaved Pomo.) This incident led to a general outbreak of settler attacks against and mass killing of native people all over Northern California. The site is now California Registered Historical Landmark #427. | 60–100 | [64][65][66] |
1851 | January 11 | Mariposa War | Various sites in Mariposa County, Northern California | The gold rush increased pressure on the Native Americans of California, because miners forced Native Americans off their gold-rich lands. Many were pressed into service in the mines; others had their villages raided by the army and volunteer Mariposa County Sheriff James Burney led local militia in an indecisive clash with the natives on January 11, 1851, on a mountainside near present-day Oakhurst, California .
|
40+ | |
1851 | Old Shasta Town Massacre | Shasta in Shasta County, Northern California | Miners killed 300 Wintu Indians near Old Shasta, California and burned down their tribal council meeting house. | 300 | [67] | |
1852 | April 23 | Bridge Gulch massacre | Hayfork Creek in Trinity County, Northern California | 70 American men led by Trinity County sheriff William H. Dixon killed more than 150 Wintu people in the Hayfork Valley of California, in retaliation for the killing of Col. John Anderson. | 150 | [68] |
1853 | Howonquet massacre | Del Norte County , Northern California |
Californian settlers attacked and burned the Tolowa village of Howonquet, massacring 70 people. | 70 | [69] | |
1853 | Yontoket Massacre |
Del Norte County , Northern California |
A posse of settlers attacked and burned a Tolowa rancheria at Yontocket, California, killing 450 Tolowa during a prayer ceremony. | 450 | [70][71] | |
1853 | Achulet Massacre |
Del Norte County , Northern California |
White settlers launched an attack on a Tolowa village near Lake Earl in California, killing between 65 and 150 Indians at dawn. | 65–150 | [72] | |
1853 | Before December 31 | "Ox" incident | Visalia in Tulare County, Central Valley | U.S. forces attacked and killed an unreported number of Indians in the Four Creeks area (Tulare County, California) in what was referred to by officers as "our little difficulty" and "the chastisement they have received". | [73] | |
1855 | January 22 | Klamath River massacres |
Del Norte County , Northern California |
In retaliation for the murder of six settlers and the theft of some cattle, whites commenced a "war of extermination against the Indians" in Humboldt County, California. | [74] | |
1856 | March | Shingletown | Shingleton in Shasta County, Northern California | In reprisal for Indian stock theft, white settlers massacred at least 20 Yana men, women, and children near Shingletown, California. | 20 | [75] |
1856–1859 | Round Valley Settler Massacres | Mendocino County , Northern California |
White settlers killed over a thousand Yuki Indians in Round Valley over the course of three years in an uncountable number of separate massacres. | 1,000+ | [76][77] | |
1859–1860 | Mendocino War | Various sites in Mendocino County , Northern California |
White settlers calling themselves the "Eel River Rangers", led by Walter Jarboe, killed at least 283 Indian men and countless women and children in 23 engagements over the course of six months. They were reimbursed by the U.S. government for their campaign. | 283+ | [76] | |
1859 | September | Pit River | Pit River in Northern California | White settlers massacred 70 Achomawi Indians (10 men and 60 women and children) in their village on the Pit River in California. | 70 | [78] |
1859 | Chico Creek | Big Chico Creek in Butte County, Northern California | White settlers attacked a Maidu camp near Chico Creek in California, killing indiscriminately 40 Indians. | 40 | [79] | |
1860 | Exact date unknown | Massacre at Bloody Rock | Mendocino County , Northern California |
A group of 65 Yuki Indians were surrounded and massacred by white settlers at Bloody Rock, in Mendocino County, California. | 65 | |
1860 | February 26 | 1860 Wiyot massacre | Tuluwat Island in Humboldt County, Northern California | In three nearly simultaneous assaults on the Wiyot, at Indian Island, Eureka, Rio Dell, and near Hydesville, California, white settlers killed between 80 and 250 Wiyot in Humboldt County, California. Victims were mostly women, children, and elders, as reported by Bret Harte at Arcata newspaper. Other villages were massacred within two days. The main site is National Register of Historic Places in the United States #66000208.
|
80–250 | [80][81][82][83] |
1863 | April 19 | Keyesville massacre | Keyesville in Kern County, Central Valley | American militia and members of the Tübatulabal men in Kern County, California .
|
35 | [84] |
1863 | August 28 | Konkow Trail of Tears | Mendocino County , Northern California |
In August 1863 all Mendocino County. Any Indians remaining in the area were to be shot. Maidu were rounded up and marched under guard west out of the Sacramento Valley and through to the Coastal Range. 461 Native Americans started the trek, 277 finished.[85] They reached the Round Valley on September 18, 1863.
|
184 | [85] |
1864 | Oak Run massacre | Oak Run in Shasta County, Northern California | California settlers massacred 300 Yana Indians who had gathered near the head of Oak Run, California, for a spiritual ceremony. | 300 | [86] | |
1865 | Owens Lake massacre | Owens Lake in Inyo County, Northern California | To avenge the killing of a woman and child at Paiute camp on Owens Lake in California, killing about 40 men, women, and children.
|
40 | [87] | |
1865 | Three Knolls massacre | Mill Creek in Tehama County, Northern California | White settlers massacred a Yana community at Three Knolls on the Mill Creek, California. | [88] | ||
1868 | Campo Seco | Mill Creek in Tehama County, Northern California | A posse of white settlers massacred 33 Yahis in a cave north of Mill Creek, California. | 33 | [89][90] | |
1871 | Kingsley Cave massacre | Ishi Wilderness in Tehama County, Northern California | 4 settlers killed 30 Yahi Indians in Tehama County, California about two miles from Wild Horse Corral in the Ishi Wilderness. It is estimated that this massacre left only 15 members of the Yahi tribe alive.
|
30 | [91] |
Population decline
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Groups | Population by year All minimum sources below cite:[16][unreliable source?] | |
---|---|---|
1770 | 1910 | |
Yurok | 2,500 (up to 3,100[92]) |
700 |
Karok | 1,500 (up to 2,000 to 2,700[93][94] ) |
800 |
Wiyot | 1,000 | 100 |
Tolowa | 1,000 | 150 |
Hupa | 1,000 | 500 |
Chilula, Whilkut | 1,000 | (*) |
Mattole | 500 (up to 2,476[95]) |
(*) |
Nongatl, Sinkyone, Lassik | 2,000 (up to 7,957[95]) |
100 |
Wailaki | 1,000 (up to 2,760[95]) |
200 |
Kato | 500 (up to 1,100[92]) |
(*) |
Yuki | 2,000 (up to 6,000 to 20,000[96]) |
100 |
Huchnom | 500 | (*) |
Coast Yuki | 500 | (*) |
Wappo | 1,000 (up to 1,650[97]) |
(*) |
Pomo | 8,000 (up to 10,000[98] to 18,000[98]) |
1,200 |
Lake Miwok | 500 | (*) |
Coast Miwok | 1,500 | (*) |
Shasta | 2,000 (up to 5,600[99] to 10,000[100]) |
100 |
Chimariko, New River, Konomihu, Oakwanuchu | 1,000 | (*) |
Achomawi, Atsugawi | 3,000 | 1,100 |
Modoc in California | 500 | (*) |
Yana/Yahi | 1,500 | (*) |
Wintun | 12,000 | 1,000 |
Maidu | 9,000 (up to 9,500[101]) |
1,100 |
Miwok (Plains and Sierra) | 9,000 | 700 |
Yokuts | 18,000 (up to 70,000[102]) |
600 |
Costanoan | 7,000 (up 10,000[103] to 26,000 combined with Salinan[104]) |
(*) |
Esselen | 500 | (*) |
Salinan | 3,000 | (*) |
Chumash | 10,000 (up to 13,650[105] to 20,400[105][106]) |
(*) |
Washo in California | 500 | 300 |
Northern Paiute in California | 500 | 300 |
Eastern and Western Mono | 4,000 | 1,500 |
Tübatulabal | 1,000 | 150 |
Koso, Chemehuevi, Kawaiisu | 1,500 | 500 |
Serrano, Vanyume, Kitanemuk, Alliklik | 3,500 | 150 |
Gabrielino, Fernandeño, San Nicoleño | 5,000 | (*) |
Luiseño | 4,000 (up to 10,000[107]) |
500 |
Juaneño | 1,000 (up 3,340[108]) |
(*) |
Cupeño | 500 (up to 750[109]) |
150 |
Cahuilla | 2,500 (up to 6,000[110] to 15,000[110]) |
800 |
Diegueño, Kamia | 3,000 (up to 6,000[111] to 19,000[112]) |
800 |
Mohave (total) | 3,000 | 1,050 |
Halchidhoma (emigrated since 1800) | 1,000 (up to 2,500[113]) |
........ |
Yuma (Total) | 2,500 | 750 |
Total of groups marked (*) | .......... | 450 |
15,850 | ||
Less river Yumans in Arizona | 3,000 (up to 4,000[114]) |
850 |
Non-Californian Indians now in California | .......... | 350 |
Affiliation doubtful or not reported | .......... | 1,000 |
Total | 133,000 (up to 230,407 to 301,233) |
16,350 |
Select ethnic groups targeted
While many groups were targeted in the genocide the circumstances of individual groups can be illustrative of the on the ground happenings of the killings.
Yuki
More than 1,000 Yuki are estimated to have been killed in the
A few specific attacks of which there is witness testimony are:
- A local paper reported 55 Indians killed in Clinton Valley on October 8, 1856.[115]
- A White farmer, John Lawson, admitted an attack killing eight Indians, three by shooting and five by hanging, after some of his hogs were stolen. He stated that these killings were a common practice.[116]
- A White farmer, Isaac Shanon, testified to killing 14 Indians in a revenge attack after a White man was killed in early 1858.[117]
- White persons from the Sacramento Valley came into Round Valley and killed four Yuki Indians with the help of locals in June 1858, despite having been warned against it by Indian Agents.[118]
- White settlers attacked and killed nine Indians in the mountains edging the valley on November 1858.[119]
- Former Superintendent of Indian Affairs, Thomas Henley (fired two months earlier for embezzling funds), led a massacre of 11 Yuki Indians in August 1859.[120]
Due to the overwhelming number of killings, an exact death toll is unknowable. The following estimates were made by government agents and newspapers at the time:
- 1856: 300 total killed over the course of the year.[115]
- Winter 1856–57: About 75 Yuki Indians killed over the course of the winter.[121]
- March–April 1858: 300–400 male Yukis killed in three weeks.[122]
- November 1858 – January 1859: 150+[123] or 170[124] Yuki Indians killed between November and January
- March–May 1859: 240 Yuki killed in assaults led by H.L. Hall in revenge for the slaughter of Judge Hasting's horse[125][126] and a total of 600 men, women, and children killed within the previous year.[127]
These estimates suggest well over 1,000 Yuki deaths at the hands of White settlers. (See Cook, Sherburne; "The California Indian and White Civilization" Part III, pg 7, for an argument in favor of the approximate reliability of figures of Indians killed at this time.)
Yahi
The Yahi were the first of the
On August 6, 1865, seventeen settlers raided a Yahi village at dawn. In 1866, more Yahis were massacred when they were caught by surprise in a ravine. Circa 1867, 33 Yahis were killed after being tracked to a cave north of Mill Creek. Circa 1871, four cowboys trapped and killed about 30 Yahis in Kingsley cave.[129]
The last known survivor of the Yahi was named Ishi by American anthropologists. Ishi had spent most of his life hiding with his tribe members in the Sierra wilderness, emerging at the age of about 49, after the deaths of his mother and remaining relatives. He was the only Yahi known to Americans.
Tolowa
In 1770 the Tolowa had a population of 1,000;
Economic aspects of genocide in Southern California
At the outset, the Euro-American population of Los Angeles County identified a practical application for the utilization of Native labor within an economy that was experiencing a shortage of laborers due to the mass migration of individuals to the gold fields. During the 1850s, Caucasians in the United States of America depended on individuals of Native American descent to cultivate vast areas of land in return for minimal or non-existent monetary compensation. During the period of the Gold Rush, numerous rancho owners were able to reap significant benefits by driving their livestock into the Central Valley and Sierra foothills, thereby capitalizing on the relatively prosperous years of gold mining.[134]
Legacy
Land theft and value
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According to M. Kat Anderson, an ecologist and lecturer at University of California, Davis, and Jon Keeley, a fire ecologist and research scientist with the U.S. Geological Survey, after decades of being disconnected from the land and their culture, due to Spanish and U.S. colonial violence, Native peoples are slowly starting to be able to practice traditions that enhance the environment around them, by directly taking care of the land. Anderson and Keeley write, "The outcomes that Indigenous people were aiming for when burning chaparral, such as increased water flow, enhanced wildlife habitat, and the maintenance of many kinds of flowering plants and animals, are congruent and dovetail with the values that public land agencies, non-profit organizations, and private landowners wish to preserve and enhance through wildland management".[135] Through these returned practices, they are able to commit and practice their culture, while also helping the other people in the area that will benefit from the ecological differences.
California Landmark 427, built in 2005 represents the Bloody Island Massacre of the Pomo people that took place on May 15, 1850.[136] The monument is used as a center point of an annual festival beginning in 1999 held by Pomo descendants. Candles and tobacco are burned in honor of their ancestors.
Call for tribunals
Native American scholar Gerald Vizenor has argued in the early 21st century for universities to be authorized to assemble tribunals to investigate these events. He notes that United States federal law contains no statute of limitations on war crimes and crimes against humanity, including genocide. He says:
Genocide tribunals would provide venues of judicial reason and equity that reveal continental ethnic cleansing, mass murder, torture, and religious persecution, past and present, and would justly expose, in the context of legal competition for evidence, the inciters, falsifiers, and deniers of genocide and state crimes against Native American Indians. Genocide tribunals would surely enhance the moot court programs in law schools and provide more serious consideration of human rights and international criminal cases by substantive testimony, motivated historical depositions, documentary evidence, contentious narratives, and ethical accountability.[137]
Vizenor believes that, in accordance with international law, the universities of South Dakota, Minnesota, and California Berkeley ought to establish tribunals to hear evidence and adjudicate crimes against humanity alleged to have taken place in their individual states.[138] Attorney Lindsay Glauner has also argued for such tribunals.[139]
Apologies and name changes
In a speech before representatives of Native American peoples in June, 2019, California governor Gavin Newsom apologized for the genocide. Newsom referring to the proposed California Truth and Healing Council said, "California must reckon with our dark history. California Native American peoples suffered violence, discrimination and exploitation sanctioned by state government throughout its history .... It's called genocide. That's what it was, a genocide. No other way to describe it. And that's the way it needs to be described in the history books. We can never undo the wrongs inflicted on the peoples who have lived on this land that we now call California since time immemorial, but we can work together to build bridges, tell the truth about our past and begin to heal deep wounds."[140][141] After hearing testimony, a Truth and Healing Council will clarify the historical record on the relationship between the state and California Native Americans.[142]
In November 2021, the board of directors of the
Academic debate on the term "genocide"
There is vigorous debate over the scale of Native American losses after the discovery of gold in California and whether to characterize them as genocide.[145][146] The application of the term "genocide", in particular, has been controversial.[147] According to historian Jeffrey Ostler, the debate mostly rests on disagreements regarding the definition of the term.[146] He writes that by a strict ("intentionalist"[58]) definition, genocide "requir[es] a federal or state government intention to kill all California Indians and an outcome in which the majority of deaths were from direct killing", while by a less strict ("structuralist"[58]) definition, it "requir[es] only settler intention to destroy a substantial portion of California Indians using a variety of means ranging from dispossession to systematic killing".[146] Under the former definition, Ostler argues that "genocide does not seem applicable," whereas under the latter definition, "genocide seems apt."
In 1948, Article 2 of the UN Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide defined genocide as
... any of the following acts committed with intent to destroy, in whole or in part, a national, ethnic, racial or religious group, as such:
- (a) Killing members of the group;
- (b) Causing serious bodily or mental harm to members of the group;
- (c) Deliberately inflicting on the group conditions of life calculated to bring about its physical destruction in whole or in part;
- (d) Imposing measures intended to prevent births within the group;
- (e) Forcibly transferring children of the group to another group.
— Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, Article 2[148]
For use of the term
Historians who argue the term "genocide" is appropriate point out that the Indian population of California fell quickly and argue that extreme violence was integral to this process.
Supporters of the use of the term "genocide" stress the involvement and complicity of federal and state authorities in perpetrating atrocities against the indigenous Californians, and point to their statements and policies as evidence of direct genocidal intent. For example, historian Richard White, in a review of Madley's An American Genocide, argues that "no reader of his book can seriously contend that what happened in California doesn't meet the current definition of "genocide"," citing the "relentless attacks by federal troops, state militia, vigilantes, and mercenaries [that] made the enslavement of Indians possible and starvation and disease inevitable".
Jeffrey Ostler, too, endorsed the usage of the term, writing that it "rests on a substantial body of scholarship".[58] Ostler argues that there is a "general consensus" that genocide took place in at least "some times and places in the state's early history".[58] Responding to critics of the "genocide" charge that have argued that epidemics were the primary cause of Native mortality,[157] Ostler writes that "depopulation from disease more often resulted from conditions created by colonialism—in California, loss of land, destruction of resources and food stores, lack of clean water, captive taking, sexual violence, and massacre—that encouraged the spread of pathogens and increased communities' vulnerability through malnutrition, exposure, social stress, and destruction of sources of medicine and capacities for palliative care".[58] He continues, "since the United States' colonization of California was intended to dispossess Indigenous peoples and since that intention had the predictable consequence of making communities vulnerable to multiple diseases which led to massive population loss, disease in this case qualifies as a crucial factor contributing to genocide".[58]
Karl Jacoby, in his review of An American Genocide, argues that the book removes "any doubt that genocide against Native people took place in the most populous and prosperous state in the US" and that it establishes "conclusively the reality of genocide in the Golden State".[158] He also notes that Madley "illuminates the ways that federal and state policies facilitated popular violence against Indians".[158] William Bauer Jr. argues that Benjamin Madley "has settled the issue on whether or not genocide occurred in California".[159] He writes also that "federal and state governments, those bodies that could or should have protected California Indians from the devastating violence, condoned and perpetrated genocides" and that "civilian leaders in California passed legislation that enabled genocide".[159] Margaret Jacobs writes that Madley has made it "nearly impossible to deny that a genocide took place against Native peoples in at least one location and one time period in American history" and that he shows how "the genocide started out as the work of vigilante groups but soon gained state funding and federal support".[160] Jacobs points out, for example, that "in 1854, Congress agreed to pay off California's war debt, and by the end of 1856, the federal government had given California more than $800,000 to distribute to bond holders who had financed the genocidal killing in the state."[160]
In his book The Rediscovery of America, historian Ned Blackhawk argues that "historians have located genocide across Native American history" and cites California as a specific example.[161] Blackhawk writes that in California, "settlers used informal and state-sanctioned violence to shatter Native worlds and legitimate their own" and also notes that "in February 1852, for example, the state legislature appropriated $500,000 to fund anti-Indian state militias".[162] Regarding the role of the federal government, he writes that they had "earlier attempted an alternate scenario to the genocide at hand. In 1851 and 1852, officials negotiated eighteen treaties across the state; however, bowing to California representatives, the Senate rejected these treaties, essentially authorizing the continued use of settler violence to aid colonization."[163]
Against the use of the term
Other scholars and historians dispute the accuracy of the term "genocide" to describe what occurred in California, as well as the blame which has been placed directly on the
See also
- Bibliography of California history
- American Indian Wars
- California Indian Reservations and Cessions
- California Indian Wars
- California mission clash of cultures
- Comanche campaign
- Cupeño trail of tears
- Genocides in history
- Genocide of Indigenous peoples
- 1837 Great Plains smallpox epidemic
- History of California
- List of genocides
- List of Indian massacres
- Long Walk of the Navajo
- Northern Cheyenne Exodus
- Serranus Clinton Hastings
- Trail of Tears
- Yavapai Wars
Notes
- ^ Aboriginal Americans. Quote: "Dr. MacGowan, in a lecture delivered at New York, estimated the present number of Indians in the United States to be about 250,000, and said that unless something prevented the oppression and cruelty of the white man, these people would gradually become reduced, and finally extinct. He predicted the total extermination of the Digger Indians of California and the tribes of other states within ten years, if something were not done for their relief. The lecturer concluded by strongly urging the establishment of a Protective Aborigines Society, something similar to the society in England to prevent cruelty to animals. By this means he thought the condition of the Indian might be improved and the race longer perpetuated." The British Medical Journal, Vol. 1, No. 274 (March 31, 1866), p. 350
Citations
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