Callisto (moon)
synchronous[4] | |||||||||
zero[4] | |||||||||
Albedo | 0.22 (geometric)[6] | ||||||||
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molecular oxygen (O2)[9] | |||||||||
Callisto (
The surface of Callisto is the oldest and most heavily
It is not in an
The likely presence of an ocean within Callisto leaves open the possibility that it could harbor life. However, conditions are thought to be less favorable than on nearby Europa.[23] Various space probes from Pioneers 10 and 11 to Galileo and Cassini have studied Callisto. Because of its low radiation levels, Callisto has long been considered the most suitable to base possible future crewed missions on to study the Jovian system.[24]
History
Discovery
Callisto was discovered independently by Simon Marius and Galileo Galilei in 1610, along with the three other large Jovian moons—Ganymede, Io and Europa.[1]
Name
Callisto, like all of Jupiter's moons, is named after one of Zeus's many lovers or other sexual partners in Greek mythology. Callisto was a nymph (or, according to some sources, the daughter of Lycaon) who was associated with the goddess of the hunt, Artemis.[25] The name was suggested by Simon Marius soon after Callisto's discovery.[26] Marius attributed the suggestion to Johannes Kepler.[25]
Jupiter is much blamed by the poets on account of his irregular loves. Three maidens are especially mentioned as having been clandestinely courted by Jupiter with success. Io, daughter of the River Inachus, Callisto of Lycaon, Europa of Agenor. Then there was Ganymede, the handsome son of King Tros, whom Jupiter, having taken the form of an eagle, transported to heaven on his back, as poets fabulously tell... I think, therefore, that I shall not have done amiss if the First is called by me Io, the Second Europa, the Third, on account of its majesty of light, Ganymede, the Fourth Callisto...[27][28]
However, the names of the Galilean satellites fell into disfavor for a considerable time, and were not revived in common use until the mid-20th century. In much of the earlier astronomical literature, Callisto is referred to by its Roman numeral designation, a system introduced by Galileo, as Jupiter IV or as "the fourth satellite of Jupiter".[29]
There's no established English adjectival form of the name. The adjectival form of Greek Καλλιστῴ Kallistōi is Καλλιστῴος Kallistōi-os, from which one might expect Latin Callistōius and English *Callistóian (with 5 syllables), parallel to Sapphóian (4 syllables) for In Virgil, a second
Orbit and rotation
Callisto is the outermost of the four Galilean moons of Jupiter. It orbits at a distance of approximately 1,880,000 km (26.3 times the 71,492 km radius of Jupiter itself).[3] This is significantly larger than the orbital radius—1,070,000 km—of the next-closest Galilean satellite, Ganymede. As a result of this relatively distant orbit, Callisto does not participate in mean-motion resonance—in which the three inner Galilean satellites are locked—and probably never has.[17] Callisto is expected to be captured into the resonance in about 1.5 billion years, completing the 1:2:4:8 chain.[44]
Like most other regular planetary moons, Callisto's rotation is locked to be
The dynamical isolation of Callisto means that it has never been appreciably
Physical characteristics
Composition
The average density of Callisto, 1.83 g/cm3,[4] suggests a composition of approximately equal parts of rocky material and water ice, with some additional volatile ices such as ammonia.[15] The mass fraction of ices is 49–55%.[15][22] The exact composition of Callisto's rock component is not known, but is probably close to the composition of L/LL type ordinary chondrites,[15] which are characterized by less total iron, less metallic iron and more iron oxide than H chondrites. The weight ratio of iron to silicon is 0.9–1.3 in Callisto, whereas the solar ratio is around 1:8.[15]
Callisto's surface has an
The Callistoan surface is asymmetric: the leading hemisphere
Internal structure
Callisto's battered surface lies on top of a cold, stiff and icy
Beneath the lithosphere and putative ocean, Callisto's interior appears to be neither entirely uniform nor particularly variable. Galileo orbiter data[4] (especially the dimensionless moment of inertia[h]—0.3549 ± 0.0042—determined during close flybys) suggest that, if Callisto is in hydrostatic equilibrium, its interior is composed of compressed rocks and ices, with the amount of rock increasing with depth due to partial settling of its constituents.[15][55] In other words, Callisto may be only partially differentiated. The density and moment of inertia for an equilibrium Callisto are compatible with the existence of a small silicate core in the center of Callisto. The radius of any such core cannot exceed 600 km, and the density may lie between 3.1 and 3.6 g/cm3.[4][15] In this case, Callisto's interior would be in stark contrast to that of Ganymede, which appears to be fully differentiated.[16][56]
However, a 2011 reanalysis of Galileo data suggests that Callisto is not in hydrostatic equilibrium.[57] In that case, the gravity data may be more consistent with a more thoroughly differentiated Callisto with a hydrated silicate core.[58]
Surface features
The ancient surface of Callisto is one of the most heavily cratered in the Solar System.
Callisto's surface can be divided into several geologically different parts: cratered plains, light plains, bright and dark smooth plains, and various units associated with particular multi-ring structures and impact craters.[12][60] The cratered plains make up most of the surface area and represent the ancient lithosphere, a mixture of ice and rocky material. The light plains include bright impact craters like Burr and Lofn, as well as the effaced remnants of old large craters called palimpsests,[i] the central parts of multi-ring structures, and isolated patches in the cratered plains.[12] These light plains are thought to be icy impact deposits. The bright, smooth plains make up a small fraction of Callisto's surface and are found in the ridge and trough zones of the Valhalla and Asgard formations and as isolated spots in the cratered plains. They were thought to be connected with endogenic activity, but the high-resolution Galileo images showed that the bright, smooth plains correlate with heavily fractured and knobby terrain and do not show any signs of resurfacing.[12] The Galileo images also revealed small, dark, smooth areas with overall coverage less than 10,000 km2, which appear to embay[j] the surrounding terrain. They are possible cryovolcanic deposits.[12] Both the light and the various smooth plains are somewhat younger and less cratered than the background cratered plains.[12][61]
Impact crater diameters seen range from 0.1 km—a limit defined by the imaging resolution—to over 100 km, not counting the multi-ring structures.[12] Small craters, with diameters less than 5 km, have simple bowl or flat-floored shapes. Those 5–40 km across usually have a central peak. Larger impact features, with diameters in the range 25–100 km, have central pits instead of peaks, such as Tindr crater.[12] The largest craters with diameters over 60 km can have central domes, which are thought to result from central tectonic uplift after an impact;[12] examples include Doh and Hár craters. A small number of very large—more than 100 km in diameter—and bright impact craters show anomalous dome geometry. These are unusually shallow and may be a transitional landform to the multi-ring structures, as with the Lofn impact feature.[12] Callisto's craters are generally shallower than those on the Moon.
The largest impact features on Callisto's surface are multi-ring basins.
As mentioned above, small patches of pure water ice with an
On a sub-kilometer scale the surface of Callisto is more degraded than the surfaces of other icy
The relative ages of the different surface units on Callisto can be determined from the density of impact craters on them. The older the surface, the denser the crater population.
Atmosphere and ionosphere
Callisto has a very tenuous atmosphere composed of
Callisto's ionosphere was first detected during Galileo flybys;
2).[9] However, oxygen has not yet been directly detected in the atmosphere of Callisto. Observations with the Hubble Space Telescope (HST) placed an upper limit on its possible concentration in the atmosphere, based on lack of detection, which is still compatible with the ionospheric measurements.[64] At the same time, HST was able to detect condensed oxygen trapped on the surface of Callisto.[65]
Atomic hydrogen has also been detected in Callisto's atmosphere via recent analysis of 2001 Hubble Space Telescope data.[66] Spectral images taken on 15 and 24 December 2001 were re-examined, revealing a faint signal of scattered light that indicates a hydrogen corona. The observed brightness from the scattered sunlight in Callisto's hydrogen corona is approximately two times larger when the leading hemisphere is observed. This asymmetry may originate from a different hydrogen abundance in both the leading and trailing hemispheres. However, this hemispheric difference in Callisto's hydrogen corona brightness is likely to originate from the extinction of the signal in Earth's geocorona, which is greater when the trailing hemisphere is observed.[67]
Callisto's atmosphere have been modelled to gain better understanding of impact of collisional molecular interactions.[68] Researchers used a kinetic method to model collisions between the constituent elements of Callisto's atmosphere (carbon dioxide, molecular oxygen and molecular hydrogen). The modeling took into account the thermal desorption of these compounds due to solar exposure and the resulting variations in temperature on the surface. The simulation showed that the density of Callisto's atmosphere could be explained by the trapping of hydrogen by the heavier gases, carbon dioxide and oxygen. The model shows how kinetic interactions between molecules affect the atmosphere, although it has limitations in terms of variables considered. The simulated densities correlate with expected thresholds for experimental detection.[69][70]
Origin and evolution
The partial
The further evolution of Callisto after
The current understanding of the evolution of Callisto allows for the existence of a layer or "ocean" of liquid water in its interior. This is connected with the anomalous behavior of ice I phase's melting temperature, which decreases with
Although Callisto is very similar in bulk properties to
Habitability
It is speculated that there could be life in Callisto's subsurface ocean. Like Europa and Ganymede, as well as Saturn's moons Enceladus, Dione and Titan and Neptune's moon Triton,[78] a possible subsurface ocean might be composed of salt water.
It is possible that halophiles could thrive in the ocean.[79] As with
Exploration
Past
The Pioneer 10 and Pioneer 11 Jupiter encounters in the early 1970s contributed little new information about Callisto in comparison with what was already known from Earth-based observations.[6] The real breakthrough happened later with the Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 flybys in 1979. They imaged more than half of the Callistoan surface with a resolution of 1–2 km, and precisely measured its temperature, mass and shape.[6] A second round of exploration lasted from 1994 to 2003, when the Galileo spacecraft had eight close encounters with Callisto, the last flyby during the C30 orbit in 2001 came as close as 138 km to the surface. The Galileo orbiter completed the global imaging of the surface and delivered a number of pictures with a resolution as high as 15 meters of selected areas of Callisto.[12] In 2000, the Cassini spacecraft en route to Saturn acquired high-quality infrared spectra of the Galilean satellites including Callisto.[50] In February–March 2007, the New Horizons probe on its way to Pluto obtained new images and spectra of Callisto.[81]
Future exploration
Callisto will be visited by three spacecraft in the near future.
The European Space Agency's Jupiter Icy Moons Explorer (JUICE), which launched on April 14, 2023, will perform 21 close flybys of Callisto between 2031 and 2034.[82][83]
NASA's Europa Clipper, which is scheduled to launch in October 2024, will conduct nine close flybys of Callisto beginning in 2030.[84]
China's
Old proposals
Formerly proposed for a launch in 2020, the
Potential crewed exploration and habitation
In 2003
The study proposed a possible surface base on Callisto that would produce rocket propellant for further exploration of the Solar System.[90] Advantages of a base on Callisto include low radiation (due to its distance from Jupiter) and geological stability. Such a base could facilitate remote exploration of Europa, or be an ideal location for a Jovian system waystation servicing spacecraft heading farther into the outer Solar System, using a gravity assist from a close flyby of Jupiter after departing Callisto.[24]
In December 2003, NASA reported that a crewed mission to Callisto might be possible in the 2040s.[92]
See also
- List of former planets
- Jupiter's moons in fiction
- List of craters on Callisto
- List of geological features on Callisto
- List of natural satellites
Notes
- ^ Periapsis is derived from the semimajor axis (a) and eccentricity (e): .
- ^ Apoapsis is derived from the semimajor axis (a) and eccentricity (e): .
- ^ Surface area derived from the radius (r): .
- ^ Volume derived from the radius (r): .
- ^ Surface gravity derived from the mass (m), the gravitational constant (G) and the radius (r): .
- ^ Escape velocity derived from the mass (m), the gravitational constant (G) and the radius (r): .
- ^ a b The leading hemisphere is the hemisphere facing the direction of the orbital motion; the trailing hemisphere faces the reverse direction.
- ^ The dimensionless moment of inertia referred to is , where I is the moment of inertia, m the mass, and r the maximal radius. It is 0.4 for a homogenous spherical body, but less than 0.4 if density increases with depth.
- ^ In the case of icy satellites, palimpsests are defined as bright circular surface features, probably old impact craters[12]
- ^ To embay means to shut in, or shelter, as in a bay.
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External links
- Callisto Profile at NASA's Solar System Exploration site
- Callisto page at The Nine Planets
- Callisto page at Views of the Solar System
- Callisto Crater Database from the Lunar and Planetary Institute
- Images of Callisto at JPL's Planetary Photojournal
- Movie of Callisto's rotation from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
- Callisto map with feature names from Planetary Photojournal
- Callisto nomenclature and Callisto map with feature names from the USGS planetary nomenclature page
- Paul Schenk's 3D images and flyover videos of Callisto and other outer solar system satellites
- Google Callisto 3D, interactive map of the moon