Calvary

Coordinates: 31°46′43″N 35°13′46″E / 31.77861°N 35.22944°E / 31.77861; 35.22944
Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
"Golgotha" redirects here. For other uses, see Golgotha (disambiguation) and Calvary (disambiguation).
Not to be confused with cavalry.
Traditional site of Golgotha in the Church of the Holy Sepulchre

Calvary (

Biblical Greek: Γολγοθᾶ, romanized: Golgothâ) was a site immediately outside Jerusalem's walls where, according to Christianity's four canonical gospels, Jesus was crucified.[1]

Since at least the early medieval period, it has been a destination for

said to have been recognized by the Roman empress Helena, mother of Constantine the Great, during her visit to the Holy Land
in 325.

Other locations have been suggested: in the 19th century,

Garden Tomb on Green Hill (now "Skull Hill") about 500 m (1,600 ft) north of the traditional site and historian Joan Taylor has more recently proposed a location about 175 m (574 ft) to its south-southeast.[citation needed
]

Biblical references and names

Altar at the traditional site of Golgotha
The altar at the traditional site of Golgotha
Chapel of Mount Calvary, painted by Luigi Mayer

The

Christian tradition has described the location as a hill or mountain since at least the 6th century. It has thus often been referenced as Mount Calvary in English hymns and literature.[13]

In the 1769

verses of the New Testament
are:

In the standard

cranium, the upper part of the skull, but it has been used metonymously since antiquity to refer to skulls and heads more generally.)[34]

The

Fall of Man.[13]

In the 19th century, Wilhelm Ludwig Krafft proposed an alternative derivation of these names, suggesting that the place had actually been known as "Gol Goatha"—which he interpreted to mean "heap of death" or "hill of execution"—and had become associated with the similar sounding

folk etymologies.[36] James Fergusson identified this "Goatha" with the Goʿah (גֹּעָה)[37] mentioned in Jeremiah 31:39 as a place near Jerusalem,[38] although Krafft himself identified that location with the separate Gennáth (Γεννάθ) of Josephus, the "Garden Gate" west of the Temple Mount.[36]

Location

There is no consensus as to the location of the site. John 19:20 describes the crucifixion site as being "near the city". According to Hebrews 13:12, it was "outside the city gate". Matthew 27:39 and Mark 15:29 both note that the location would have been accessible to "passers-by". Thus, locating the crucifixion site involves identifying a site that, in the city of Jerusalem some four decades before its destruction in AD 70, would have been outside a major gate near enough to the city that the passers-by could not only see him, but also read the inscription 'Jesus the Nazarene, King of the Jews'.[39]

Church of the Holy Sepulchre

Christian tradition since the fourth century has favoured a location now within the

Old City and were rebuilt in the 16th century by the Ottoman Empire
. Proponents of the traditional Holy Sepulchre location point out at the fact that first-century Jerusalem had a different shape and size from the 16th-century city, leaving the church's site outside the pre-AD 70 city walls. Those opposing it doubt this.

Defenders of the traditional site have argued that the site of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre was only brought within the city limits by Herod Agrippa (41–44), who built the so-called Third Wall around a newly settled northern district, while at the time of Jesus' crucifixion around AD 30 it would still have been just outside the city.

Henry Chadwick (2003) argued that when Hadrian's builders replanned the old city, they "incidentally confirm[ed] the bringing of Golgotha inside a new town wall."[40]

In 2007 Dan Bahat, the former City Archaeologist of Jerusalem and Professor of Land of Israel Studies at Bar-Ilan University, stated that "Six graves from the first century were found on the area of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. That means, this place [was] outside of the city, without any doubt…".[41]

Church of the Holy Sepulchre

Pilgrims queue to touch the rock of Calvary in Chapel of the Crucifixion
Disc marking traditional place, under the altar, where Jesus' cross stood.
The Holy Sepulchre (1) in the Christian Quarter of Jerusalem

The traditional location of Golgotha derives from its identification by Queen Mother Helena, mother of Constantine the Great, in 325. Less than 45 meters (150 ft) away, Helena also identified the location of the tomb of Jesus and claimed to have discovered the True Cross; her son, Constantine, then built the Church of the Holy Sepulchre around the whole site. In 333, the author of the Itinerarium Burdigalense, entering from the east, described the result:

On the left hand is the little hill of Golgotha where the Lord was crucified. About a stone's throw from thence is a vault [crypta] wherein his body was laid, and rose again on the third day. There, at present, by the command of the Emperor Constantine, has been built a basilica; that is to say, a church of wondrous beauty.[42]

In Nazénie Garibian de Vartavan's doctoral thesis, now published as La Jérusalem Nouvelle et les premiers sanctuaires chrétiens de l'Arménie. Méthode pour l'étude de l'église comme temple de Dieu, she concluded, through multiple arguments (mainly theological and archaeological), that the true site of Golgotha was precisely at the vertical of the now buried Constantinian basilica's altar and away from where the traditional rock of Golgotha is situated.[43] The plans published in the book indicate the location of the Golgotha within a precision of less than two meters, below the circular passage situated a metre away from where the blood stained shirt of Christ was traditionally recovered and immediately before the stairs leading down to St. Helena's Chapel (the above-mentioned mother of Emperor Constantine), alternatively called St. Vartan's Chapel.

Temple to Aphrodite

Jerusalem after being rebuilt by Hadrian: Two main east–west roads were built, as well as two main north–south roads.

Prior to Helena's identification, the site had been a

Christian tradition claims that the location had originally been a Christian place of veneration, but that Hadrian had deliberately buried these Christian sites and built his own temple on top, on account of his alleged hatred for Christianity.[44]

There is certainly evidence that c. 160, at least as early as 30 years after Hadrian's temple had been built, Christians associated it with the site of Golgotha; Melito of Sardis, an influential mid-2nd century bishop in the region, described the location as "in the middle of the street, in the middle of the city",[45] which matches the position of Hadrian's temple within the mid-2nd century city.

The Romans typically built a city according to a

Jupiter Capitolinus, intentionally built atop the Temple Mount.[47] Another popular holy site that Hadrian converted to a pagan temple was the Pool of Bethesda, possibly referenced to in the fifth chapter of the Gospel of John,[48][49] on which was built the Temple of Asclepius and Serapis. While the positioning of the Temple of Aphrodite may be, in light of the common Colonia layout, entirely unintentional, Hadrian is known to have concurrently built pagan temples on top of other holy sites in Jerusalem as part of an overall "Romanization" policy.[50][51][52][53][54]

Archaeological excavations under the Church of the Holy Sepulchre have revealed Christian pilgrims' graffiti, dating from the period that the Temple of Aphrodite was still present, of a ship, a common early Christian symbol[55][56][57] and the etching "DOMINVS IVIMVS", meaning "Lord, we went",[58][59] lending possible support to the statement by Melito of Sardis' asserting that early Christians identified Golgotha as being in the middle of Hadrian's city, rather than outside.

Rockface

Natural stone of Golgotha in the Chapel of Adam below site

During 1973–1978 restoration works and excavations inside the Church of the Holy Sepulchre and under the nearby

Franciscan priest and archaeologist, present at the excavations, suggested that from the city the little hill (which still exists) could have looked like a skull.[61]

During a 1986 repair to the floor of the Calvary Chapel by the art historian George Lavas and architect Theo Mitropoulos, a round slot of 11.5 cm (4.5 in) diameter was discovered in the rock, partly open on one side (Lavas attributes the open side to accidental damage during his repairs);[62] although the dating of the slot is uncertain, and could date to Hadrian's temple of Aphrodite, Lavas suggested that it could have been the site of the crucifixion, as it would be strong enough to hold in place a wooden trunk of up to 2.5 metres (8 ft 2 in) in height (among other things).[63][64] The same restoration work also revealed a crack running across the surface of the rock, which continues down to the Chapel of Adam;[62] the crack is thought by archaeologists to have been a result of the quarry workmen encountering a flaw in the rock.[citation needed]

Based on the late 20th century excavations of the site, there have been a number of attempted reconstructions of the profile of the cliff face. These often attempt to show the site as it would have appeared to Constantine. However, as the ground level in Roman times was about 4–5 feet (1.2–1.5 m) lower and the site housed Hadrian's temple to Aphrodite, much of the surrounding rocky slope must have been removed long before Constantine built the church on the site. The height of the Golgotha rock itself would have caused it to jut through the platform level of the Aphrodite temple, where it would be clearly visible. The reason for Hadrian not cutting the rock down is uncertain, but Virgilio Corbo suggested that a statue, probably of Aphrodite, was placed on it,[65] a suggestion also made by Jerome. Some archaeologists have suggested that prior to Hadrian's use, the rock outcrop had been a nefesh – a Jewish funeral monument, equivalent to the stele.[66]

Pilgrimages to Constantine's Church

Icon of Jesus being led to Golgotha, 16th century, Theophanes the Cretan (Stavronikita Monastery, Mount Athos)

The

Eusebius in 338.[73]
)

Gordon's Calvary

Main article:
Gordon's Calvary
Garden Tomb
with c. 1900s picture posted on pole for comparison

In 1842,

Skull Hill, is beneath a cliff that contains two large sunken holes, which Gordon regarded as resembling the eyes of a skull. He and a few others before him believed that the skull-like appearance would have caused the location to be known as Golgotha.[76]

Nearby is an ancient rock-cut tomb known today as the Garden Tomb, which Gordon proposed as the tomb of Jesus. The Garden Tomb contains several ancient burial places, although the archaeologist Gabriel Barkay has proposed that the tomb dates to the 7th century BC and that the site may have been abandoned by the 1st century.[77]

Roman destruction of Jerusalem, identified Mount Zion as being the Western Hill (the current Mount Zion),[79][80]
which is south of both the Garden Tomb and the Holy Sepulchre. Eusebius' comment therefore offers no additional argument for either location.

See also

References

  1. ^ Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Calvary" . Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
  2. ^ Vulgate, Matthaeum 27:33. (Latin)
  3. ^ Vulgate, Marcum 15:22. (Latin)
  4. ^ Vulgate, Lucam 23:33. (Latin)
  5. ^ Vulgate, Ioannem 19:17. (Latin)
  6. ^
    Đa Halgan Godspel, Lucas 23:33. (Thorpe
    ed.)
  7. ^ Cf. Bavarian State Library MS. Rar. 880 (1494), Lucas 23:33. (German)
  8. ^ After Martin Luther's 1522 translation, it has been more common to translate the meaning of the Greek name directly into German as Schädelstätte, equivalent to "Skullplace".
  9. ^ KJV, Matthew 27:33, Marke 15:22, Luke 23:33, John 19:17. (1611 ed.)
  10. ^ Wycliffe, Maþeu 23:33, Luke 23:33, Joon 19:17.
  11. ^ Wycliffe, Mark 15:22.
  12. ^ Tyndale, Luke 23:33.
  13. ^ a b c d "Mount Calvary". Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. III. New York: Robert Appleton Company. 1908.
  14. ^ KJV, Matthew 27:33–35. (1769 ed.)
  15. ^ KJV, Mark 15:22–24. (1769 ed.)
  16. ^ KJV, Luke 23:33. (1769 ed.)
  17. ^ KJV, John 19:17–18. (1769 ed.)
  18. ^ a b Nestle, Maththaion 27:33. (Greek)
  19. ^ a b Iōanēn 19:17. (Greek)
  20. ^ a b Nestle, Markon 15:22. (Greek)
  21. ^ Nestle, Loukan 23:33. (Greek)
  22. ISBN 1-58983-003-2
    – via sbl-site.org.
  23. ^ "H1538 - gulgoleth - Strong's Hebrew Lexicon (KJV)". blueletterbible.org.
  24. ^ a b "The Name Golgotha". Abarim Publications..
  25. ^ Alexander, Joseph Addison (1863), The Gospel According to Mark (3rd ed.), New York: Charles Scribner, p. 420.
  26. ^ Lightfoot, John (1822), The Harmony, Chronicle, and Order of the New Testament..., London: J.F. Dove, p. 164.
  27. ^ Louw, J.P.; et al. (1996), Greek–English Lexicon of the New Testament, United Bible Societies, p. 834.
  28. ^ Schultens, Albert (1737). Institutiones ad fundamenta linguæ Hebrææ: quibus via panditur ad ejusdem analogiam restituendam, et vindicandam: in usum collegii domestici (in Latin). Johannes Luzac. p. 334.
  29. ^ Thrupp, Joseph Francis (1855). Ancient Jerusalem: A New Investigation Into the History, Topography and Plan of the City, Environs, and Temple, Designed Principally to Illustrate the Records and Prophecies of Scripture. Macmillan & Company. p. 272.
  30. ^ Audo, Toma, ed. (2008) [1897-[1901]]. Treasure of the Syriac Language: A Dictionary of Classical Syriac. Vol. 1. Mosul; Piscataway, New Jersey: Imprimerie des pères dominicains. p. 117 – via dukhrana.com.
  31. ^ Payne Smith, Robert (1879). "Golgotha". Thesaurus Syriacus. Vol. 1. Oxford: The Calerndon Press. p. 324 – via dukhrana.com.
  32. ^ Payne Smith, J. (Mrs. Margoliouth) (1903). "Golgotha". A Compendious Syriac Dictionary. Oxford: The Clarendon Press. p. 60 – via dukhrana.com.
  33. ^ Cf. e.g., the various translations of Matthew 27:33 at Biblehub.com.
  34. ^ "κρανίον, τό". Perseus Project.
  35. ^ Five Books in Reply to Marcion, Book 2, Ante-Nicene Fathers, Vol. 4, p. 276.
  36. ^ a b Krafft, Wilhelm Ludwig (1846), Die Topographie Jerusalems [The Topography of Jerusalem], Bonn. (German)
  37. ^ "H1601: Goah", Strong's Concordance.
  38. ISBN 9780524050347
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  39. ^ John 19:20
  40. ISBN 0-19-926577-1
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  41. ^ Dan Bahat in German television ZDF, April 11, 2007
  42. ^ Itinerarium Burdigalense, pp. 593, 594
  43. ISBN 978-0-9527827-7-3
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  44. ^ Eusebius, Life of Constantine, 3:26
  45. ^ Melito of Sardis, On Easter
  46. ^ a b c Ball, Warwick. Rome in the East: The Transformation of an Empire. p. 294.
  47. ^ Clermont-Ganneau, Charles. Archaeological researches in Palestine during the years 1873–1874.
  48. ^ John 5:1–18
  49. ^ Jerome Murphy-O'Connor, The Holy Land, (2008), p. 29
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  51. ^ Lehmann, Clayton Miles (22 February 2007). "Palestine: History". The On-line Encyclopedia of the Roman Provinces. The University of South Dakota. Archived from the original on 10 March 2008. Retrieved 18 April 2007.
  52. ^ Cohen, Shaye J. D. (1996). "Judaism to Mishnah: 135–220 C.E". In Hershel Shanks (ed.). Christianity and Rabbinic Judaism: A Parallel History of their Origins and Early Development. Washington DC: Biblical Archaeology Society. p. 196.
  53. ^ Emily Jane Hunt, Christianity in the second century: the case of Tatian, p. 7, at Google Books, Psychology Press, 2003, p. 7
  54. ^ E. Mary Smallwood The Jews under Roman rule: from Pompey to Diocletian, a study in political relations, p. 460, at Google Books Brill, 1981, p. 460.
  55. ^ Nave New Advent encyclopedia, accessed 25 March 2014.
  56. ^ Ship as a Symbol of the Church (Bark of St. Peter) Jesus Walk, accessed 11 February 2015.
  57. ^ "Ship hangs in balance at Pella Evangelical Lutheran Church". Sidney (Montana) Herald. 10 June 2008. Retrieved 3 January 2016.
  58. ^ Clermont-Ganneau, Charles. Archaeological researches in Palestine during the years 1873–1874. p. 103.
  59. ^ followinghadrian (5 November 2014). "Exploring Aelia Capitolina, Hadrian's Jerusalem". Archived from the original on 18 February 2017. Retrieved 28 February 2017.
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  61. ^ Hesemann 1999, p. 170: "Von der Stadt aus muß er tatsächlich wie eine Schädelkuppe ausgesehen haben," and p. 190: a sketch; and p. 172: a sketch of the geological findings by C. Katsimbinis, 1976: "der Felsblock ist zu 1/8 unterhalb des Kirchenbodens, verbreitert sich dort auf etwa 6,40 Meter und verläuft weiter in die Tiefe"; and p. 192, a sketch by Corbo, 1980: Golgotha is distant 10 meters outside from the southwest corner of the Martyrion-basilica
  62. ^ a b George Lavas, The Rock of Calvary, published (1996) in The Real and Ideal Jerusalem in Jewish, Christian and Islamic Art (proceedings of the 5th International Seminar in Jewish Art), pp. 147–150
  63. ^ Hesemann 1999, pp. 171–172: "....Georg Lavas and ... Theo Mitropoulos, ... cleaned off a thick layer of rubble and building material from one to 45 cm thick that covered the actual limestone. The experts still argue whether this was the work of the architects of Hadrian, who aimed thereby to adapt the rock better to the temple plan, or whether it comes from 7th century cleaning....When the restorers progressed to the lime layer and the actual rock....they found they had removed a circular slot of 11.5 cm diameter".
  64. ^ Vatican-magazin.com, Vatican 3/2007, pp. 12/13; Vatican 3/2007, p. 11, here p. 3 photo No. 4, quite right, photo by Paul Badde: der steinere Ring auf dem Golgothafelsen.
  65. ^ Virgilio Corbo, The Holy Sepulchre of Jerusalem (1981)
  66. ^ Dan Bahat, Does the Holy Sepulchre Church Mark the Burial of Jesus?, in Biblical Archaeology Review May/June 1986
  67. ^ "Bordeaux Pilgrim – Text 7b: Jerusalem (second part)". Archived from the original on 2016-05-13. Retrieved 2011-10-25.
  68. ^ "St. Cyril of Jerusalem" (PDF). p. 51, note 313. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2007-06-16. Retrieved 2007-06-12.
  69. ^ "Cyril, Catechetical Lectures, year 347, lecture X" (PDF). p. 160, note 1221. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2007-06-16. Retrieved 2007-06-12.
  70. ^ Iteneraria Egeriae, ccel.org. Accessed February 25, 2024.
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  73. ^ "NPNF2-01. Eusebius Pamphilius: Church History, Life of Constantine, Oration in Praise of Constantine – Christian Classics Ethereal Library".
  74. ^ Wilson, Charles W. (1906). Golgotha and The Holy Sepulchre. The Committee of the Palestine Exploration Fund. pp. 103–20 – via archive.org.
  75. ^ a b Thenius, Otto (1842). "Golgatha et Sanctum Sepulchrum". Zeitschrift für die historische Theologie (in German) – via archive.org.
  76. ^ White, Bill (1989). A Special Place: The Story of the Garden Tomb.
  77. ^ Barkay, Gabriel (March–April 1986). "The Garden Tomb". Biblical Archaeology Review.
  78. Onomasticon
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  79. ^ "Zion". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved November 19, 2021 – via britannica.com.
  80. ^ Zanger, Walter. "The Unknown Mount Zion" (PDF). Retrieved November 19, 2021 – via jewishbible.org.

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Golgotha.

31°46′43″N 35°13′46″E / 31.77861°N 35.22944°E / 31.77861; 35.22944

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