Camulodunum
Alternative name | Camulodunon, Colonia Claudia Victricensis, Colonia Victricensis |
---|---|
Location | Colchester, Essex, England |
Region | Britannia |
Coordinates | 51°53′31″N 0°53′53″E / 51.89194°N 0.89806°E |
Type | Colonia |
History | |
Founded | Late 1st century BC |
Periods | British Iron Age to Roman Empire |
Site notes | |
OS grid reference: TL995255 |
Camulodunum (
Ptolemy names Camulodunum as being near Eboracum/York
In the second century AD
Camulodunon
Colchester is said to be the
Iron Age Camulodunon
The earliest
The main sites within the bounds of these defences are the Gosbecks farmstead, the Sheepen industrial area and the Lexden burials. The Gosbecks site consists of a large, high-status farmstead,
Just inside the earthworks, at Lexden, are located the burial mounds of the rulers of Camulodunon, which contain large amounts of grave goods including imported Roman material from Europe;[5] the largest of these mounds is the Lexden tumulus.[23][24] The Lexden area around the mounds contains several Iron Age cremation burial groups, including one containing the "Mirror burial", with other burials located around the Camulodunon site.[5] A large cluster of cremations from St. Clare road and Fitzwalter Road close to the Lexden Tumulus date to 50–10 BC.[19]
Aside from these main activity areas, the 1,000 ha area enclosed by the defensive earthworks and rivers mainly consisted of a network of droveways,
Iron Age salt works (known as
Pre-Boudican Roman town
Claudian invasion
The
Roman fortress and early town
As the stronghold of a major tribe in the south-east, Camulodunum held strategic importance.
The legionary fortress was larger than a standard castrum, and included a large annex on its north-east side.
After the legion was withdrawn in c. AD 49, the legionary defences were dismantled and the fortress converted into a town, with many of the barrack blocks converted into housing.[5][7] Its official name became Colonia Victricensis, with discharged Roman soldiers making up the population; a bronze military diplomata (document formalising a soldier's retirement, citizen rights and land rights) for a legionary soldier called Saturninus has been found at the Sheepen site.[5] As a colonia (the only one in Britain at the time) its citizens held equal rights to Romans, and it was the principal city of Roman Britain.[5] Tacitus wrote that the town was "a strong colonia of ex-soldiers established on conquered territory, to provide a protection against rebels and a centre for instructing the provincials in the procedures of the law".[3] The Temple of Claudius, the largest classical style temple in Britain, was built there in the 50s and was dedicated to Emperor Claudius on his death in 54.[6][7] The podium, or foundation of the temple, was incorporated into the Norman castle, and represents "the earliest substantial stone building of Roman date visible in the country".[3] A monumental arch was built from tufa and Purbeck Marble at the western gate out of the town.[38] Tombs lined the roads out of the town, with several belonging to military veterans giving insights into the military units stationed in Britain during the post-Conquest period, such as:
- The famous tomb of the Thracian cavalryman Longinus Sdapeze,[39] depicting a Thracian horsemanon horseback with full armour, in triumph over a cowering Briton. It reads:
- LONGINVS.SDAPEZE
- MATYCI.F.DVPLICARIVS.ALA.PRIMA.TRACVM.PAGO
- SARDICA.ANNO.XL.AEROR.XV
- HEREDES.EXS.TESTAM.F.C.
- H S E
- (Translated: Longinus Sdapeze, son of Matycus, Sardica, who lived for forty years, with fifteen years paid service. His heirs set this up as stipulated in his will. He lies here.)[36]
- The tomb of the and reads:
- M.FAVONI.M.F.POL.FACI
- LIS.C.LEG.XX.VERECVND
- VS.ET.NOVCIVS.LIB.POSVERVNT H S E
- (Translated: For Marcus Favonius Facilis, son of Marcus, of the freedmen have placed [this memorial]. He lies here.)[20]
- The tomb of an auxiliary from Gaul:
- D M AR... RE... VAL... COH I VA... QVI M... EX AERE COLLATO
- (Translated: To the spirits of the departed and to Ar[...] Re[...] Val[...] of the First Cohort of Vangiones, who [...] former collector of taxes.)[36]
- The tomb of another experienced centurion from Anatolia:
- ...LEG I (or II) ADIVTRICIS... ...AE BIS C ... ... BIS C LEG III AVG ... C LEG XX VAL VICTORIVNDVS NICAEA IN BITHYNIA MILITAVIT ANN ... VIXIT ANN ... ...
- (Translated: [...] of Legio Primae Adiutrix [...] twice centurion [...] twice centurion of Legio Tertiae Augusta [...] centurion of Legio Vicesimae Valeria, Victoriundus, from Nicaea in Bithynia, with [...] years military service who lived for [...] years [...])[20]
By 60–61 the population may have been as high as 30,000.[40]
Iceni revolt
The city was the capital of the Roman province of
However tensions arose in 60/61 when the Roman authorities used the death of Prasutagus as a pretext for seizing the Iceni client state from his widow Boudica. The Iceni rebels were joined by the Trinovantes around Colonia Victricensis, who held several grudges against the Roman population of the town. These included the seizure of land for the colonia's veteran population, the use of labour to build the Temple of Claudius, and the sudden recall of loans given to the local elites by leading Romans (including Seneca and the Emperor), which had been needed to allow the locals to qualify for a position on the city council.[5][46] The Procurator Catus Decianus was especially despised.[2]
Tacitus recorded that certain ominous portents occurred in the town prior to the rebellion:
- "[...]the statue of Victory fell down, its back turned as though in retreat from the enemy. Women roused into frenzy chanted of approaching destruction, and declared that the cries of the barbarians had been heard in the council-chamber, that the theatre had re-echoed with shrieks, that a reflection of the colonia, overthrown, had been seen in the Thames estuary. The sea appeared blood-red, and spectres of human corpses were left behind as the tide went out."[3]
As the symbol of Roman rule in Britain the city was the first target of the rebels, with its Temple seen in British eyes as the arx aeternae dominationis ("stronghold of everlasting domination") according to Tacitus.[3] He wrote that it was undefended by fortifications when it was attacked[46] with a garrison of only 200 members of the procurator's guard.[6] He wrote of a last stand at the Temple of Claudius:
- "In the attack everything was broken down and burnt. The temple where the soldiers had congregated was besieged for two days and then sacked.".[3]
The rebels destroyed the city and slaughtered its population. Archaeologists have found layers of ash in the site of the city, suggesting that Boudica ordered her rebel army to burn the city to the ground.
Boudican destruction layer
The destruction of the early town by the rebels has left a thick layer of ash, destroyed buildings and smashed pottery and glasswork across the town centre and at the Sheepen river port site outside the NW corner of the town. The destruction layer, also found at
Colonia Victricensis in the second and third centuries
Following the destruction of the Colonia and
The colonia is mentioned by name several times by contemporaries, including in
The 2nd century tomb inscription for Gn. Munatius Bassus in Rome, which describes the name of the town and its Roman citizenship, reads:- GN.MVNATIVS.MF.PAL
- AVRELIVS.BASSVS
- PROCAVG
- PRAEF.FABR.PRAEF.COH.III
- SAGITTARIORVM.PRAEF.COH.ITERVM.II
- ASTVRVM.CENSITOR.CIVIVM
- ROMANORVM.COLONIAE.VICTRI
- CENSIS.QVAE.EST.IN.BRITTANNIA
- CAMALODVNI.CVRATOR
- VIAE.NOMENTANAE.PATRONVS.EIVSDEM
- MVNICIPI.FLAMEN.PERPETVS
- DVVM.VIR.ALI.POTESTATE
- AEDILIS.DICTATOR.IIII.
- (Translated: Gnaeus Munatius Aurelius Bassus, son of Marcus of the Nomentum Road, Patron again of the same municipality, Priest for life, Aedile with magisterial power, Dictator four times.)[5]
Status
The city was one of the few Roman settlements in Britain designated as a Colonia rather than a
Walls
Following the rebuilding of the town after 60/1, new walls and a large defensive ditch were built around the colonia (the first town walls in Britain, predating other such walls in the province by at least 150 years
Streets
The
Public buildings
Within the town walls was located the Temple of Claudius in its large temple precinct with a monumental columned arcade.[58][59] Parts of the temple precinct wall are still visible to the NW of the present castle, jutting out from beneath the Norman bailey rampart.[3] The front of the precinct wall consisted of a large columned arcade screen extending the full width of the frontage.[5] At the centre of this arcade stood the entranceway to the temple precinct, which took the form of a tufa-faced monumental arch that at 8 m wide was about 2 m wider than the one at the Eastern entrance to the town, which had been incorporated into Balkerne Gate.[5]
To the west of the temple on the modern Maidenburgh Street was a 3,000 seat capacity
A large portico with an eastern entrance ran all the way around the outside of the site, with a solid outer wall, a row of columns down the centre of the portico and a second row of columns around the inner side.[5] In all there were about 260 columns placed 2 m apart, and reaching a height of at least 5 m.[5] The portico ran around the outside of a deep, Iron-Age enclosure ditch, which separated the portico from the central space in the middle of the site. This central space contained a large Romano-Celtic temple, which stood off-centre, leading to suggestions that something else stood at the heart of the religious complex.[5]
Next to the Gosbecks temple stood a second 5,000 seat theatre, Britain's largest at 82 m in diameter.
In 2005, the
Several temples and religious monuments in and around the colonia have evidence for the deity honoured by them:
- A statue of Venus was found in the vicinity of the temple outside of the Balkerne Gate.[5]
- A statue of Mercury was found at the site of the Gosbecks temple.[7]
- The Temple at the Colchester Royal Grammar School has several plaques dedicated to Silvanus,[5] including:
- DEO SILVANO CALLIRIO D CINTVSMVS AERARIVS VSLM
- (Translated: To the god Silvanus Callirius, Decimus Cintusmus, coppersmith, willingly and deservedly fulfilled his vow.)[59]
- DEO SILVANO HERMES VSLM
- (Translated: To the god Silvanus, Hermes willingly and deservedly fulfilled his vow.)[59]
- The largest of the four temples at the Sheepen site has a plaque dedicated to Jupiter:
- P.ORANIVS
- FACILLIS.IOVI
- SIGILLUM.EX.TESTA
- (Translated: Publius Oranius Facilis gave a statue to Jove under the terms of his will)[5]
- An altar to the SW of the town dedicated to the Suleviae:
- MATRIBVS SVLEVIS SIMILIS ATTI F CI CANT VSLM
- (Translated: To the Sulevi mothers, Similis the son of Attius, of the Civitas Cantiacorum, willingly and deservedly fulfills his vow.)[20]
- A Bronze plaque dedicated sometime between 222 and 235 CE by a Emperor Imperator Caesar Marcus Aurelius Severus, himself a Syrian:
- DEO MARTI MEDOCIO CAMPESIVM ET VICTORIE ALEXANDRI PII FELICIS AVGVSTI NOSI DONVM LOSSIO VEDA DE SVO POSVIT NEPOS VEPOGENI CALEDO
- (Translated: To the god of the battlefields Mars Medocius, and to the victory of [Imperator Caesar Marcus Aurelius Severus] Alexander Pius Felix Augustus, Lossius Veda the grandson of Vepogenus Caledos, placed [this] offering out of his own [funds].)[20]
- A monument, built by a local artisan Maronius, was dedicated to the "Numinibus Augusti" (Spirits of the Emperor) and Mercury:
- NVMINIB AVG ET MERCV DEO ANDESCOCI VOVCO IMILCO AESVRILINI LIBERTVS ARAM OPERE MARONIO D S D
- (Translated: To the Spirits of the Emperor and the God Mercury, Andescoci Vouco Imilco Aesurilini, freedman, [dedicates] this altar, the work of Maronius, donated out of his own [funds].)[20]
Marble from many of these public structures has been found, including Purbeck Marble and giallo antico (a rare yellow marble from Tunisia),[3] as well as statutes, inscriptions and plaques.[5]
Several other public buildings have been postulated for which evidence is so far lacking, for example:
- Depictions on pottery, glasswork, and wall plaster from the colonia of
- A mound called "The Mount", which formerly stood in the
Water management
The town's streets and walls feature many brick built drains, including several large examples in Castle Park and near
Houses
Many houses have been found in the colonia during archaeological excavations. Stone-founded buildings largely replaced timber ones in the course of the 2nd century, while average house size tended to increase in size up to a peak at around 250.[70] They have painted plaster walls and tiled roofs, many with tessellated mosaic floors, hypocaust systems, private baths and courtyards.[37][38] Latrine pits, with examples well over a metre deep, have been discovered next to some of the houses.[37] Large houses were also found in the extramural suburbs outside of the town walls, with the Middleborough House beneath the old Cattle Market being the largest, containing many rooms, mosaics and basements.[38] The Beryfield mosaic (of 180/200) from the SE corner of the colonia is the best preserved of the more than 50 mosaics found in the town.[3]
Cemeteries
In keeping with
- The tomb of a Roman Eques:
- ...OS... ... MACRI... ... VS EQ R VIX AN XX V FRONTINA CONIVNX ET FLOR COGITATVS ET FLOR FIDELIS FECERVNT
- (Translated: [...] Macri[nus] [Flor]us, a knight of Rome, who lived for twenty-five years, Frontina his wife, with Florus Cogitatus and Florus Fidelis, have made [this memorial].)[20]
- The tomb of a young man:
- D M IN HOC TVMVLO TEGVNTVR OSSA VENERABILIS IVVENIS ... CVNCTI MVCIANVM ... ERVNT SER ... ... VN ...
- (Translated: To the spirits of the departed, within this mound are being protected the bones of the honourable young man [...] Cunctius Muciana [...] they are overthrowing slavery [...])[20]
Other funerary monuments include the large tower-like ossuary containing the remains of cremated individuals and
Industry and economy
Pottery production
Camulodunum was a centre for pottery production, peaking at around 200,
Other activities
As well as pottery, ceramics produced in Camulodunum also include a large tile industry, oil lamps and figurines.
Late Roman town
The late 3rd century and 4th centuries saw a series of crises in the Empire, including breakaway of the
As with many towns in the Empire, the colonia shrunk in size in the 4th century but continued to function as an important town.[70] Although houses tended to shrink in size, with 75% of the large townhouses being replaced by smaller buildings by c. 350,[70] in the period 275 to 325 a weak "building boom" (the "Constantinian renaissance") occurred in the town, with new houses being built and old ones reshaped.[70] Many of the town's mosaics date from this period, including the famous Lion Walk mosaic.[3] Late Roman robber trenches have been found at some sites, used for removing and salvaging tessellated floors and tiles for reuse in later houses.[37][38] The pottery industry in the town had declined significantly by 300,[70] but the 4th century saw an increase in the bone-working industry for making furniture and jewellery,[37] and evidence of blown glass making has also been found.[37] Large areas of the Southern part of the town were given over to agriculture.[37]
Despite scaling down of private buildings an increase in size and grandeur of public buildings occurred in the period 275–400.[70] The Temple of Claudius and its associated temenos buildings were reconstructed in the early-4th century, along with the possible forum-basilica building to the south of it.[82] The Temple appears to have had a large apsidal hall built across the front of the podium steps, with numismatic dating evidence taking the date of the building up to at least 395.[82] A large hall at the Culver Street site, dated 275–325 to c. 400, may have been a large centralised storage barn for taxes paid in kind with grain.[37][70]
Although the Gosbecks Theatre had been demolished by the 3rd century, the theatre at Maidenburgh Street may still have been in use throughout the 4th century.[83] The sunken chambers of the water reservoir system found in Castle Park appear to have become blocked with debris and dumped rubbish in the 4th century and was disused.[84][85] The Roman chariot circus was also demolished during the late 4th century.[86] Increases in the number of
Christianity in the late Roman town
During this period the
Sub-Roman period
The formal collapse of Roman administration in the province occurred in the years 409–411. Activity in the 5th century continued in Camulodunum at a much reduced level,[70] with evidence of at the Butt Road site showing it briefly carrying on into the early 5th century.[68]
Several burials within the towns walls have been dated to the late 5th century. These include two burials discovered at East Hill House in 1983, which have been surgically decapitated (in a fashion found in both
Roman legacy in Saxon and early medieval Colchester
Later dwellings at Culver Street and artifacts from the 7th and 8th centuries are seen as evidence that the shell of the Roman town was still in use into the
Several structures from the Saxon and Medieval period incorporated Roman structural remains within their walls and outlines.
The name of the town and the River Colne are also a legacy of the Romans. "Colchester" (first appearing in written form in the 10th Century as Colencaester and Colneceastre) is a Saxon name derived from the Latin words Colonia and Castra,[5] with the River Colne also taking its name from Colonia.[5]
See also
- History of Colchester
- Oldest town in Britain
- Trinovantes
- Catuvellauni
- Cunobeline
- Caratacus
- Addedomarus
- Camelot
References
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Bibliography
- Tacitus (1876). The Annales. Alfred John Church and William Jackson Brodribb (translators).
External links
- Colchester Archaeological Trust home page
- Info on Roman Colchester
- History of Roman Colchester
- Colchester and Ipswich Museums Home Page