Canada
Coordinates: 60°N 110°W / 60°N 110°W
Canada | |
---|---|
Motto: ![]() | |
Capital | Ottawa 45°24′N 75°40′W / 45.400°N 75.667°W |
Largest city | Toronto |
Official languages | |
Demonym(s) | Canadian |
Government | Federal parliamentary constitutional monarchy |
• Monarch | Charles III |
Mary Simon | |
Justin Trudeau | |
Legislature | Parliament |
Senate | |
House of Commons | |
Independence from the United Kingdom | |
July 1, 1867 | |
December 11, 1931 | |
April 17, 1982 | |
Area | |
• Total area | 9,984,670 km2 (3,855,100 sq mi) (2nd) |
• Water (%) | 11.76 (2015)[2] |
• Total land area | 9,093,507 km2 (3,511,023 sq mi) |
Population | |
• 2022 estimate | 39,292,355[3] (37th) |
• 2021 census | 36,991,981[4] |
• Density | 4.2/km2 (10.9/sq mi) (236th) |
GDP (PPP) | 2022 estimate |
• Total | ![]() |
• Per capita | ![]() |
GDP (nominal) | 2022 estimate |
• Total | ![]() |
• Per capita | ![]() |
Gini (2018) | ![]() medium |
HDI (2021) | ![]() very high · 15th |
Currency | Canadian dollar ($) (CAD) |
Time zone | UTC−3.5 to −8 |
• Summer (DST) | UTC−2.5 to −7 |
Date format | yyyy-mm-dd (AD)[8] |
Driving side | right |
Calling code | +1 |
Internet TLD | .ca |
Canada is a country in North America. Its ten provinces and three territories extend from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean and northward into the Arctic Ocean, covering over 9.98 million square kilometres (3.85 million square miles), making it the world's second-largest country by total area. Its southern and western border with the United States, stretching 8,891 kilometres (5,525 mi), is the world's longest binational land border. Canada's capital is Ottawa, and its three largest metropolitan areas are Toronto, Montreal, and Vancouver.
Indigenous peoples have continuously inhabited what is now Canada for thousands of years. Beginning in the 16th century, British and French expeditions explored and later settled along the Atlantic coast. As a consequence of various armed conflicts, France ceded nearly all of its colonies in North America in 1763. In 1867, with the union of three British North American colonies through Confederation, Canada was formed as a federal dominion of four provinces. This began an accretion of provinces and territories and a process of increasing autonomy from the United Kingdom. This widening autonomy was highlighted by the Statute of Westminster 1931 and culminated in the Canada Act 1982, which severed the vestiges of legal dependence on the Parliament of the United Kingdom.
Canada is a
A highly
Etymology
While a variety of theories have been postulated for the etymological origins of Canada, the name is now accepted as coming from the
From the 16th to the early 18th century, "Canada" referred to the part of New France that lay along the Saint Lawrence River.[11] In 1791, the area became two British colonies called Upper Canada and Lower Canada. These two colonies were collectively named the Canadas until their union as the British Province of Canada in 1841.[12]
Upon
The Canada Act 1982, which brought the constitution of Canada fully under Canadian control, referred only to Canada. Later that year, the name of the national holiday was changed from Dominion Day to Canada Day.[18] The term Dominion was used to distinguish the federal government from the provinces, though after the Second World War the term federal had replaced dominion.[19]
History
Indigenous peoples
The

The
Although not without conflict,
European colonization

It is believed that the first European to explore the east coast of Canada was
In 1583, Sir
The English established additional settlements in
British North America

The Royal Proclamation of 1763 established First Nation treaty rights, created the Province of Quebec out of New France, and annexed Cape Breton Island to Nova Scotia.[18] St. John's Island (now Prince Edward Island) became a separate colony in 1769.[56] To avert conflict in Quebec, the British Parliament passed the Quebec Act 1774, expanding Quebec's territory to the Great Lakes and Ohio Valley.[57] More importantly, the Quebec Act afforded Quebec special autonomy and rights of self-administration at a time when the Thirteen Colonies were increasingly agitating against British rule.[58] It re-established the French language, Catholic faith, and French civil law there, staving off the growth of an independence movement in contrast to the Thirteen Colonies.[59] The Proclamation and the Quebec Act in turn angered many residents of the Thirteen Colonies, further fuelling anti-British sentiment in the years prior to the American Revolution.[18]
After the successful American War of Independence, the

The Canadas were the main front in the
The desire for
Confederation and expansion

Following several constitutional conferences, the British North America Act 1867 officially proclaimed Canadian Confederation on July 1, 1867, initially with four provinces: Ontario, Quebec, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick.[70][71] Canada assumed control of Rupert's Land and the North-Western Territory to form the Northwest Territories, where the Métis' grievances ignited the Red River Rebellion and the creation of the province of Manitoba in July 1870.[72] British Columbia and Vancouver Island (which had been united in 1866) joined the confederation in 1871 on the promise of a transcontinental railway extending to Victoria in the province within 10 years,[73] while Prince Edward Island joined in 1873.[74] In 1898, during the Klondike Gold Rush in the Northwest Territories, Parliament created the Yukon Territory. Alberta and Saskatchewan became provinces in 1905.[74] Between 1871 and 1896, almost one quarter of the Canadian population emigrated south to the US.[75]
To open the West and encourage European immigration, Parliament approved sponsoring the construction of three transcontinental railways (including the Canadian Pacific Railway), opening the prairies to settlement with the Dominion Lands Act, and establishing the North-West Mounted Police to assert its authority over this territory.[76][77] This period of westward expansion and nation building resulted in the displacement of many Indigenous peoples of the Canadian Prairies to "Indian reserves",[78] clearing the way for ethnic European block settlements.[79] This caused the collapse of the Plains Bison in western Canada and the introduction of European cattle farms and wheat fields dominating the land.[80] The Indigenous peoples saw widespread famine and disease due to the loss of the bison and their traditional hunting lands.[81] The federal government did provide emergency relief, on condition of the Indigenous peoples moving to the reserves.[82] During this time, Canada introduced the Indian Act extending its control over the First Nations to education, government and legal rights.[83]
Early 20th century

Because Britain still maintained control of Canada's foreign affairs under the British North America Act, 1867, its declaration of war in 1914 automatically brought Canada into World War I.[84] Volunteers sent to the Western Front later became part of the Canadian Corps, which played a substantial role in the Battle of Vimy Ridge and other major engagements of the war.[85] Out of approximately 625,000 Canadians who served in World War I, some 60,000 were killed and another 172,000 were wounded.[86] The Conscription Crisis of 1917 erupted when the Unionist Cabinet's proposal to augment the military's dwindling number of active members with conscription was met with vehement objections from French-speaking Quebecers.[87] The Military Service Act brought in compulsory military service, though it, coupled with disputes over French language schools outside Quebec, deeply alienated Francophone Canadians and temporarily split the Liberal Party.[87] In 1919, Canada joined the League of Nations independently of Britain,[85] and the Statute of Westminster, 1931 affirmed Canada's independence.[88]
The Great Depression in Canada during the early 1930s saw an economic downturn, leading to hardship across the country.[89] In response to the downturn, the Co-operative Commonwealth Federation (CCF) in Saskatchewan introduced many elements of a welfare state (as pioneered by Tommy Douglas) in the 1940s and 1950s.[90] On the advice of Prime Minister William Lyon Mackenzie King, war with Germany was declared effective September 10, 1939, by King George VI, seven days after the United Kingdom. The delay underscored Canada's independence.[85]
The first Canadian Army units arrived in Britain in December 1939. In all, over a million Canadians served in the armed forces during
The Canadian economy boomed during the war as its industries manufactured military materiel for Canada, Britain, China, and the Soviet Union.[85] Despite another Conscription Crisis in Quebec in 1944, Canada finished the war with a large army and strong economy.[93]
Contemporary era
The financial crisis of the Great Depression had led the Dominion of Newfoundland to relinquish responsible government in 1934 and become a Crown colony ruled by a British governor.[94] After two referendums, Newfoundlanders voted to join Canada in 1949 as a province.[95]
Canada's post-war economic growth, combined with the policies of successive Liberal governments, led to the emergence of a new

Finally, another series of constitutional conferences resulted in the UK's Canada Act 1982, the patriation of Canada's constitution from the United Kingdom, concurrent with the creation of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms.[100][101][102] Canada had established complete sovereignty as an independent country under its own monarchy.[103][104] In 1999, Nunavut became Canada's third territory after a series of negotiations with the federal government.[105]
At the same time, Quebec underwent profound social and economic changes through the Quiet Revolution of the 1960s, giving birth to a secular nationalist movement.[106] The radical Front de libération du Québec (FLQ) ignited the October Crisis with a series of bombings and kidnappings in 1970[107] and the sovereignist Parti Québécois was elected in 1976, organizing an unsuccessful referendum on sovereignty-association in 1980. Attempts to accommodate Quebec nationalism constitutionally through the Meech Lake Accord failed in 1990.[108] This led to the formation of the Bloc Québécois in Quebec and the invigoration of the Reform Party of Canada in the West.[109][110] A second referendum followed in 1995, in which sovereignty was rejected by a slimmer margin of 50.6 to 49.4 percent.[111] In 1997, the Supreme Court ruled unilateral secession by a province would be unconstitutional and the Clarity Act was passed by parliament, outlining the terms of a negotiated departure from Confederation.[108]
In addition to the issues of Quebec sovereignty, a number of crises shook Canadian society in the late 1980s and early 1990s. These included the explosion of
In 2011, Canadian forces participated in the NATO-led intervention into the
Geography
By total area (including its waters), Canada is the
Canada can be divided into seven physiographic regions: the
Climate
Average winter and summer high temperatures across Canada vary from region to region. Winters can be harsh in many parts of the country, particularly in the interior and Prairie provinces, which experience a continental climate, where daily average temperatures are near −15 °C (5 °F), but can drop below −40 °C (−40 °F) with severe wind chills.[136] In non-coastal regions, snow can cover the ground for almost six months of the year, while in parts of the north snow can persist year-round. Coastal British Columbia has a temperate climate, with a mild and rainy winter. On the east and west coasts, average high temperatures are generally in the low 20s °C (70s °F), while between the coasts, the average summer high temperature ranges from 25 to 30 °C (77 to 86 °F), with temperatures in some interior locations occasionally exceeding 40 °C (104 °F).[137]
Much of Northern Canada is covered by ice and permafrost. The future of the permafrost is uncertain because the Arctic has been warming at three times the global average as a result of climate change in Canada.[138] Canada's annual average temperature over land has risen by 1.7 °C (3.1 °F), with changes ranging from 1.1 to 2.3 °C (2.0 to 4.1 °F) in various regions, since 1948.[139] The rate of warming has been higher across the North and in the Prairies.[139] In the southern regions of Canada, air pollution from both Canada and the United States—caused by metal smelting, burning coal to power utilities, and vehicle emissions—has resulted in acid rain, which has severely impacted waterways, forest growth and agricultural productivity in Canada.[140]
Biodiversity

Canada is divided into fifteen terrestrial and five marine ecozones.[141] These ecozones encompass over 80,000 classified species of Canadian wildlife, with an equal number yet to be formally recognized or discovered.[142] Although Canada has a low percentage of endemic species compared to other countries,[143] due to human activities, invasive species and environmental issues in the country, there are currently more than 800 species at risk of being lost.[144] About 65 percent of Canada's resident species are considered "Secure".[145] Over half of Canada's landscape is intact and relatively free of human development.[146] The boreal forest of Canada is considered to be the largest intact forest on Earth, with approximately 3,000,000 km2 (1,200,000 sq mi) undisturbed by roads, cities or industry.[147] Since the end of the last glacial period, Canada has consisted of eight distinct forest regions,[148] with 42 percent of its land area covered by forests (approximately 8 percent of the world's forested land).[149]
Approximately 12.1 percent of the nation's landmass and freshwater are
Government and politics

Canada is described as a "full democracy",[158] with a tradition of liberalism,[159] and an egalitarian,[160] moderate political ideology.[161] An emphasis on social justice has been a distinguishing element of Canada's political culture.[162][163] Peace, order, and good government, alongside an Implied Bill of Rights, are founding principles of the Canadian government.[164][165]
At the federal level, Canada has been dominated by two relatively
Canada has a
While the monarchy is the source of authority in Canada, in practice its position is symbolic.[184][188][189] The use of the executive powers is directed by the Cabinet, a committee of ministers of the Crown responsible to the elected House of Commons and chosen and headed by the prime minister (at present Justin Trudeau),[190] the head of government. The governor general or monarch may, though, in certain crisis situations exercise their power without ministerial advice.[188] To ensure the stability of government, the governor general will usually appoint as prime minister the individual who is the current leader of the political party that can obtain the confidence of a plurality in the House of Commons.[191] The Prime Minister's Office (PMO) is thus one of the most powerful institutions in government, initiating most legislation for parliamentary approval and selecting for appointment by the Crown, besides the aforementioned, the governor general, lieutenant governors, senators, federal court judges, and heads of Crown corporations and government agencies.[188] The leader of the party with the second-most seats usually becomes the leader of the Official Opposition and is part of an adversarial parliamentary system intended to keep the government in check.[192]

Each of the 338
The Bank of Canada is the central bank of the country. The minister of finance and minister of innovation, science and industry use the Statistics Canada agency for financial planning and economic policy development.[198] The Bank of Canada is the sole authority authorized to issue currency in the form of Canadian bank notes.[199] The bank does not issue Canadian coins; they are issued by the Royal Canadian Mint.[200]
Law
The Constitution of Canada is the supreme law of the country and consists of written text and unwritten conventions.[201] The Constitution Act, 1867 (known as the British North America Act, 1867 prior to 1982), affirmed governance based on parliamentary precedent and divided powers between the federal and provincial governments.[202] The Statute of Westminster, 1931, granted full autonomy, and the'Constitution Act, 1982, ended all legislative ties to Britain, as well as adding a constitutional amending formula and the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms.[203] The Charter guarantees basic rights and freedoms that usually cannot be over-ridden by any government—though a notwithstanding clause allows Parliament and the provincial legislatures to override certain sections of the Charter for a period of five years.[204]

Canada's judiciary plays an important role in interpreting laws and has the power to strike down Acts of Parliament that violate the constitution. The Supreme Court of Canada is the highest court and final arbiter and has been led since December 18, 2017, by Richard Wagner, the chief justice of Canada.[205] The governor general appoints its nine members on the advice of the prime minister and minister of justice. All judges at the superior and appellate levels are appointed after consultation with non-governmental legal bodies. The federal Cabinet also appoints justices to superior courts in the provincial and territorial jurisdictions.[206]
Common law prevails everywhere except in Quebec, where civil law predominates.[207] Criminal law is solely a federal responsibility and is uniform throughout Canada.[208] Law enforcement, including criminal courts, is officially a provincial responsibility, conducted by provincial and municipal police forces.[209] In most rural and some urban areas, policing responsibilities are contracted to the federal Royal Canadian Mounted Police.[210]
Canadian Aboriginal law provides certain constitutionally recognized rights to land and traditional practices for Indigenous groups in Canada.[211] Various treaties and case laws were established to mediate relations between Europeans and many Indigenous peoples.[212] Most notably, a series of eleven treaties known as the Numbered Treaties were signed between the Indigenous peoples and the reigning monarch of Canada between 1871 and 1921.[213] These treaties are agreements between the Canadian Crown-in-Council with the duty to consult and accommodate.[214] The role of Aboriginal law and the rights they support were reaffirmed by section 35 of the Constitution Act, 1982.[212] These rights may include provision of services, such as health care through the Indian Health Transfer Policy, and exemption from taxation.[215]
Foreign relations and military

Canada is recognized as a
Canada was a founding member of the United Nations and has membership in the
Canada and the United States share the world's longest undefended border, co-operate on military campaigns and exercises, and are each other's largest trading partner.[226][227] Canada nevertheless has an independent foreign policy.[228] For example, it maintains full relations with Cuba and declined to participate in the 2003 invasion of Iraq.[229]
Canada maintains historic ties to the
Canada's strong attachment to the British Empire and Commonwealth led to major participation in British military efforts in the

During the Suez Crisis of 1956, future prime minister Lester B. Pearson eased tensions by proposing the inception of the United Nations Peacekeeping Force, for which he was awarded the 1957 Nobel Peace Prize.[235] As this was the first UN peacekeeping mission, Pearson is often credited as the inventor of the concept.[236] Canada has since served in over 50 peacekeeping missions, including every UN peacekeeping effort until 1989,[85] and has since maintained forces in international missions in Rwanda, the former Yugoslavia, and elsewhere; Canada has sometimes faced controversy over its involvement in foreign countries, notably in the 1993 Somalia affair.[237]
In 2001, Canada deployed troops to Afghanistan as part of the US stabilization force and the UN-authorized, NATO-led International Security Assistance Force.[238] In August 2007, Canada's territorial claims in the Arctic were challenged after a Russian underwater expedition to the North Pole; Canada has considered that area to be sovereign territory since 1925.[239]
The unified
Provinces and territories
Canada is a federation composed of ten
The major difference between a Canadian province and a territory is that provinces receive their power and authority from the Constitution Act, 1867, whereas territorial governments have powers delegated to them by the Parliament of Canada.[249] The powers flowing from the Constitution Act, 1867, are divided between the federal government and the provincial governments to exercise exclusively.[250] As the division of powers between the federal government and the provinces is defined in the constitution, any changes require a constitutional amendment. The territories being creatures of the federal government, changes to their role and division of powers may be performed unilaterally by the Parliament of Canada.[251]
Economy

Canada has a
In 2021, Canadian trade in goods and services reached $2.016 trillion.
Since the early 20th century, the growth of Canada's manufacturing, mining, and service sectors has transformed the nation from a largely rural economy to an urbanized, industrial one.[263] Like many other developed countries, the Canadian economy is dominated by the service industry, which employs about three-quarters of the country's workforce.[264] Among developed countries, Canada has an unusually important primary sector, of which the forestry and petroleum industries are the most prominent components.[265]
Canada's economic integration with the United States has increased significantly since
Canada is one of the few developed nations that are net exporters of energy.
Science and technology
In 2019, Canada spent approximately $40.3 billion on domestic research and development, of which over $7 billion was provided by the federal and provincial governments.[277] As of 2020[update], the country has produced fifteen Nobel laureates in physics, chemistry, and medicine,[278] and was ranked fourth worldwide for scientific research quality in a major 2012 survey of international scientists.[279] It is furthermore home to the headquarters of a number of global technology firms.[280] Canada has one of the highest levels of Internet access in the world, with over 33 million users, equivalent to around 94 percent of its total 2014 population.[281] Canada was ranked 15th in the Global Innovation Index in 2022.[282]
Some of the most notable scientific developments in Canada include the creation of the modern alkaline battery,[283] Insulin,[284] and the polio vaccine[285] and discoveries about the interior structure of the atomic nucleus.[286] Other major Canadian scientific contributions include the artificial cardiac pacemaker, mapping the visual cortex,[287][288] the development of the electron microscope,[289][290] plate tectonics, deep learning, multi-touch technology and the identification of the first black hole, Cygnus X-1.[291] Canada has a long history of discovery in genetics, which include stem cells, site-directed mutagenesis, T-cell receptor and the identification of the genes that cause Fanconi anemia, cystic fibrosis and early-onset Alzheimer's disease, among numerous other diseases.[288][292]
The
Demographics

The
Canada's population density, at 4.2 inhabitants per square kilometre (11/sq mi), is among the lowest in the world.[299] Canada spans latitudinally from the 83rd parallel north to the 41st parallel north, and approximately 95 percent of the population is found south of the 55th parallel north.[308] About four-fifths of the population lives within 150 kilometres (93 mi) of the border with the contiguous United States.[309] The most densely populated part of the country, accounting for nearly 50 percent, is the Quebec City–Windsor Corridor in Southern Quebec and Southern Ontario along the Great Lakes and the Saint Lawrence River.[298][308]
The majority of Canadians (81.1 percent) live in family households, 12.1 percent report living alone, and those living with other relatives or unrelated persons reported at 6.8 percent.[310] Fifty-one percent of households are couples with or without children, 8.7 percent are single-parent households, 2.9 percent are multigenerational households, and 29.3 percent are single-person households.[310]
Rank
|
Name | Province
|
Pop.
|
Rank
|
Name | Province
|
Pop.
| ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Toronto | Ontario | 6,202,225 | 11 | London | Ontario | 543,551 | ||
2 | Montreal | Quebec | 4,291,732 | 12 | Halifax | Nova Scotia | 465,703 | ||
3 | Vancouver | British Columbia | 2,642,825 | 13 | St. Catharines–Niagara | Ontario | 433,604 | ||
4 | Ottawa–Gatineau | Ontario–Quebec | 1,488,307 | 14 | Windsor | Ontario | 422,630 | ||
5 | Calgary | Alberta | 1,481,806 | 15 | Oshawa | Ontario | 415,311 | ||
6 | Edmonton | Alberta | 1,418,118 | 16 | Victoria | British Columbia | 397,237 | ||
7 | Quebec City | Quebec | 839,311 | 17 | Saskatoon | Saskatchewan | 317,480 | ||
8 | Winnipeg | Manitoba | 834,678 | 18 | Regina | Saskatchewan | 249,217 | ||
9 | Hamilton | Ontario | 785,184 | 19 | Sherbrooke | Quebec | 227,398 | ||
10 | Kitchener–Cambridge–Waterloo | Ontario | 575,847 | 20 | Kelowna | British Columbia | 222,162 |
Health
Healthcare in Canada is delivered through the provincial and territorial systems of publicly funded health care, informally called Medicare.[311][312] It is guided by the provisions of the Canada Health Act of 1984[313] and is universal.[314] Universal access to publicly funded health services "is often considered by Canadians as a fundamental value that ensures national health care insurance for everyone wherever they live in the country."[315] Around 30 percent of Canadians' healthcare is paid for through the private sector.[316] This mostly pays for services not covered or partially covered by Medicare, such as prescription drugs, dentistry and optometry.[316] Approximately 65 to 75 percent of Canadians have some form of supplementary health insurance related to the aforementioned reasons; many receive it through their employers or access secondary social service programs related to extended coverage for families receiving social assistance or vulnerable demographics, such as seniors, minors, and those with disabilities.[317][316]

In common with many other developed countries, Canada is experiencing an increase in healthcare expenditures due to a
In 2021, the
Education

Education in Canada is for the most part provided publicly, funded and overseen by federal, provincial, and local governments.[333] Education is within provincial jurisdiction and the curriculum is overseen by the province.[334][335] Education in Canada is generally divided into primary education, followed by secondary education and post-secondary. Education in both English and French is available in most places across Canada.[336] Canada has a large number of universities, almost all of which are publicly funded.[337] Established in 1663, Université Laval is the oldest post-secondary institution in Canada.[338] The largest university is the University of Toronto with over 85,000 students.[339] Four universities are regularly ranked among the top 100 world-wide, namely University of Toronto, University of British Columbia, McGill University and McMaster University, with a total of 18 universities ranked in the top 500 worldwide.[340]
According to a 2019 report by the OECD, Canada is one of the most educated countries in the world;[341] the country ranks first worldwide in the percentage of adults having tertiary education, with over 56 percent of Canadian adults having attained at least an undergraduate college or university degree.[341] Canada spends about 5.3 percent of its GDP on education.[342] The country invests heavily in tertiary education (more than US$20,000 per student).[343] As of 2014[update], 89 percent of adults aged 25 to 64 have earned the equivalent of a high-school degree, compared to an OECD average of 75 percent.[344]
The mandatory education age ranges between 5–7 to 16–18 years,[345] contributing to an adult literacy rate of 99 percent.[319] Just over 60,000 children are homeschooled in the country as of 2016. The Programme for International Student Assessment indicates Canadian students perform well above the OECD average, particularly in mathematics, science, and reading,[346][347] ranking the overall knowledge and skills of Canadian 15-year-olds as the sixth-best in the world, although these scores have been declining in recent years. Canada is a well-performing OECD country in reading literacy, mathematics, and science with the average student scoring 523.7, compared with the OECD average of 493 in 2015.[348][349]
Ethnicity

English Irish Scottish French German Chinese Indian Ukrainian | Métis Acadian Mennonite Inuit Cree Ojibway Dene Heiltsuk |
According to the
The country's ten largest self-reported specific ethnic or cultural origins in 2021 were Canadian[c] (accounting for 15.6 percent of the population), followed by English (14.7 percent), Irish (12.1 percent), Scottish (12.1 percent), French (11.0 percent), German (8.1 percent), Chinese (4.7 percent), Italian (4.3 percent), Indian (3.7 percent), and Ukrainian (3.5 percent).[355]
Of the 36.3 million people enumerated in 2021, approximately 25.4 million reported being "White", representing 69.8 percent of the population.[356] The Indigenous population representing 5 percent or 1.8 million individuals, grew by 9.4 percent compared to the non-Indigenous population, which grew by 5.3 percent from 2016 to 2021.[357] One out of every four Canadians or 26.5 percent of the population belonged to a non-White and non-Indigenous visible minority,[358][d] the largest of which in 2021 were South Asian (2.6 million people; 7.1 percent), Chinese (1.7 million; 4.7 percent) and Black (1.5 million; 4.3 percent).[356]
Between 2011 and 2016, the visible minority population rose by 18.4 percent.
Languages

A multitude of languages are used by Canadians, with
The 1977
Other provinces have no official languages as such, but French is used as a language of instruction, in courts, and for other government services, in addition to English. Manitoba, Ontario, and Quebec allow for both English and French to be spoken in the provincial legislatures, and laws are enacted in both languages. In Ontario, French has some legal status, but is not fully co-official.[371] There are 11 Indigenous language groups, composed of more than 65 distinct languages and dialects.[372] Several Indigenous languages have official status in the Northwest Territories.[373] Inuktitut is the majority language in Nunavut, and is one of three official languages in the territory.[374]
Additionally, Canada is home to many sign languages, some of which are Indigenous.[375] American Sign Language (ASL) is used across the country due to the prevalence of ASL in primary and secondary schools.[376] Due to its historical relation to the francophone culture, Quebec Sign Language (LSQ) is used primarily in Quebec, although there are sizeable Francophone communities in New Brunswick, Ontario and Manitoba.[377]
Religion
Canada is religiously diverse, encompassing a wide range of beliefs and customs. Although the
The "
2. Everyone has the following fundamental freedoms:
- (a) freedom of conscience and religion;
- (b) freedom of thought, belief, opinion and expression, including freedom of the press and other media of communication;
- (c) freedom of peaceful assembly; and
- (d) freedom of association.
The practice of religion is generally considered a private matter throughout society and the state.[381] With Christianity in decline after having once been central and integral to Canadian culture and daily life,[382] Canada has become a post-Christian, secular state.[383][384][385][386] The majority of Canadians consider religion to be unimportant in their daily lives,[387] but still believe in God.[388]
According to the 2021 census,
Culture

Canada's culture draws influences from its broad range of constituent nationalities, and policies that promote a "just society" are constitutionally protected.[396][397][398] Canada has placed emphasis on equality and inclusiveness for all its people.[399][400] The official state policy of multiculturalism is often cited as one of Canada's significant accomplishments,[401] and a key distinguishing element of Canadian identity.[402][403] In Quebec, cultural identity is strong, and there is a French Canadian culture that is distinct from English Canadian culture.[404] As a whole, Canada is in theory a cultural mosaic of regional ethnic subcultures.[405][406]
Canada's approach to governance emphasizing multiculturalism, which is based on selective
Historically, Canada has been influenced by
Symbols
Themes of nature, pioneers, trappers, and traders played an important part in the early development of Canadian symbolism.[417] Modern symbols emphasize the country's geography, cold climate, lifestyles and the Canadianization of traditional European and Indigenous symbols.[418] The use of the maple leaf as a Canadian symbol dates to the early 18th century. The maple leaf is depicted on Canada's current and previous flags, and on the Arms of Canada.[419] Canada's official tartan, known as the "maple leaf tartan", has four colours that reflect the colours of the maple leaf as it changes through the seasons—green in the spring, gold in the early autumn, red at the first frost, and brown after falling.[420] The Arms of Canada are closely modelled after the royal coat of arms of the United Kingdom with French and distinctive Canadian elements replacing or added to those derived from the British version.[421]
Other prominent symbols include the national motto "
Literature
Canadian literature is often divided into French- and English-language literatures, which are rooted in the literary traditions of France and Britain, respectively.[427] The earliest Canadian narratives were of travel and exploration.[428] This progressed into three major themes that can be found within historical Canadian literature: nature, frontier life, and Canada's position within the world, all three of which tie into the garrison mentality.[429] In recent decades, Canada's literature has been strongly influenced by immigrants from around the world.[430] Since the 1980s, Canada's ethnic and cultural diversity has been openly reflected in its literature.[431] By the 1990s, Canadian literature was viewed as some of the world's best.[431]
Numerous
Media

Canada's media is
Non-news media content in Canada, including film and television, is influenced both by local creators as well as by imports from the United States, the United Kingdom, Australia, and France.[445] In an effort to reduce the amount of foreign-made media, government interventions in television broadcasting can include both regulation of content and public financing.[446] Canadian tax laws limit foreign competition in magazine advertising.[447]
Visual arts

Art in Canada is marked by thousands of years of habitation by its indigenous peoples.[448] Historically, the Catholic Church was the primary patron of art in New France and early Canada, especially Quebec,[449] and in later times, artists have combined British, French, Indigenous and American artistic traditions, at times embracing European styles while working to promote nationalism.[450] The nature of Canadian art reflects these diverse origins, as artists have taken their traditions and adapted these influences to reflect the reality of their lives in Canada.[451]
The Canadian government has played a role in the development of Canadian culture through the department of
Canadian visual art has been dominated by figures such as painter Tom Thomson and by the Group of Seven.[455] The Group of Seven were painters with a nationalistic and idealistic focus, who first exhibited their distinctive works in May 1920. Though referred to as having seven members, five artists—Lawren Harris, A. Y. Jackson, Arthur Lismer, J. E. H. MacDonald, and Frederick Varley—were responsible for articulating the group's ideas. They were joined briefly by Frank Johnston and by commercial artist Franklin Carmichael. A. J. Casson became part of the group in 1926.[456] Associated with the group was another prominent Canadian artist, Emily Carr, known for her landscapes and portrayals of the Indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast.[457]
Music

Canadian music reflects a
Sports
The
Canada shares several major professional sports leagues with the United States.[475] Canadian teams in these leagues include seven franchises in the National Hockey League, as well as three Major League Soccer teams and one team in each of Major League Baseball and the National Basketball Association. Other popular professional competitions include the Canadian Football League, National Lacrosse League, the Canadian Premier League, and the various curling tournaments sanctioned and organized by Curling Canada.[476]
Canada has enjoyed success both
See also
Notes
- ^ "Brokerage politics: A Canadian term for successful big tent parties that embody a pluralistic catch-all approach to appeal to the median Canadian voter ... adopting centrist policies and electoral coalitions to satisfy the short-term preferences of a majority of electors who are not located on the ideological fringe."[166][167] "The traditional brokerage model of Canadian politics leaves little room for ideology"[168][169][170][171]
- ^ "The Royal Canadian Navy is composed of approximately 8,400 full-time sailors and 5,100 part-time sailors. The Canadian Army is composed of approximately 22,800 full-time soldiers, 18,700 Reservists, and 5,000 Canadian Rangers. The Royal Canadian Air Force is composed of approximately 13,000 Regular Force personnel and 2,400 Air Reserve personnel."[242]
- ^ a b All citizens of Canada are classified as "Canadians" as defined by Canada's nationality laws. "Canadian" as an ethnic group has since 1996 been added to census questionnaires for possible ancestral origin or descent. "Canadian" was included as an example on the English questionnaire and "Canadien" as an example on the French questionnaire.[352] "The majority of respondents to this selection are from the eastern part of the country that was first settled. Respondents generally are visibly European (Anglophones and Francophones) and no longer self-identify with their ethnic ancestral origins. This response is attributed to a multitude or generational distance from ancestral lineage."[353][354]
- ^ Indigenous peoples are not considered a visible minority in Statistics Canada calculations. Visible minorities are defined by Statistics Canada as "persons, other than aboriginal peoples, who are non-Caucasian in race or non-white in colour".[359]
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Further reading
Overview
- Marsh, James H. (1999). The Canadian Encyclopedia. McClelland & Stewart. ISBN 978-0-7710-2099-5.
Culture
- ISBN 978-0-7710-2181-7.
- Vance, Jonathan F. (2011). A History of Canadian Culture. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-544422-3.
Demography and statistics
- Canada Year Book (CYB) annual 1867–1967. Statistics Canada. 2008.
- Carment, David; Bercuson, David (2008). The World in Canada: Diaspora, Demography, and Domestic Politics. McGill-Queen's University Press. ISBN 978-0-7735-7854-8.
- Canada Year Book, 2012 (Report). Statistics Canada. December 2012. ISSN 0068-8142. Catalogue no 11-402-XWE.
Economy
- Easterbrook, W.T.; Aitken, Hugh G. J. (2015). Canadian Economic History. University of Toronto Press, Scholarly Publishing Division. ISBN 978-1-4426-5814-1.
- Economic Survey of Canada - 11 March 2021. OECD. 2022. – (Previous surveys)
- Jones-Imhotep, Edward; Adcock, Tina (2018). Made Modern: Science and Technology in Canadian History. UBC Press. ISBN 978-0-7748-3726-2.
Foreign relations and military
- Conrad, John (2011). Scarce Heard Amid the Guns: An Inside Look at Canadian Peacekeeping. Dundurn Press. ISBN 978-1-55488-981-5.
- Thomas Juneau; Philippe Lagassé; Srdjan Vucetic, eds. (2019). Canadian Defence Policy in Theory and Practice. Springer Nature. OCLC 1120056171.
Geography and climate
- Montello, Daniel R.; Applegarth, Michael T.; McKnight, Tom L. (2021). Regional Geography of the United States and Canada: Fifth Edition. Waveland Press. ISBN 978-1-4786-4712-6.
- Stanford, Quentin H, ed. (2008). Canadian Oxford World Atlas (6th ed.). Oxford University Press (Canada). ISBN 978-0-19-542928-2.
Government and law
- Malcolmson, Patrick; Myers, Richard (2009). The Canadian Regime: An Introduction to Parliamentary Government in Canada (4th ed.). University of Toronto Press. ISBN 978-1-4426-0047-8.
- Morton, Frederick Lee (2002). Law, politics, and the judicial process in Canada. Frederick Lee. ISBN 978-1-55238-046-8.
History
- Careless, J. M. S. (2012). Canada: A Story of Challenge (Revised ed.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-67581-0.
- Francis, RD; Jones, Richard; Smith, Donald B (2009). Journeys: A History of Canada. Nelson Education. ISBN 978-0-17-644244-6.
- Taylor, Martin Brook; Owram, Doug (1994). Canadian History (2 volumes). University of Toronto Press. ISBN 978-0-8020-2801-3
Social welfare
- Finkel, Alvin (2006). Social Policy and Practice in Canada: A History. Wilfrid Laurier University Press. ISBN 978-0-88920-475-1.
- Thompson, Valerie D. (2015). Health and Health Care Delivery in Canada. Elsevier Health Sciences. ISBN 978-1-927406-31-1.
- Burke, Sara Z.; Milewski, Patrice (2011). Schooling in Transition: Readings in Canadian History of Education. University of Toronto Press. ISBN 978-0-8020-9577-0.
External links
Overviews
- Canada from UCB Libraries GovPubs
- Canada at Curlie
- Canada profile from the OECD
- Key Development Forecasts for Canada from International Futures
Government
- Official website of the Government of Canada
- Official website of the Governor General of Canada
- Official website of the Prime Ministers of Canada
Travel