Canada

Canada
Canada
	Flag Coat of arms
	Motto:
Capital	Ottawa; 45°24′N 75°40′W / 45.400°N 75.667°W
Largest city	Toronto
Official languages	English; French;
Demonym(s)	Canadian
Government	Federal parliamentary; constitutional monarchy
• Monarch	Charles III
• Governor General	Mary Simon
• Prime Minister	Justin Trudeau
Legislature	Parliament
• Upper house	Senate
• Lower house	House of Commons
Independence from the United Kingdom
• Confederation	July 1, 1867
• Statute of Westminster 1931	December 11, 1931
• Patriation	April 17, 1982
Area
• Total area	9,984,670 km2 (3,855,100 sq mi) (2nd)
• Water (%)	11.76 (2015)
• Total land area	9,093,507 km2 (3,511,023 sq mi)
Population
• 2022 estimate	39,292,355 (37th)
• 2021 census	36,991,981
• Density	4.2/km2 (10.9/sq mi) (236th)
GDP (PPP)	2022 estimate
• Total	$2.240 trillion (15th)
• Per capita	$57,827 (23rd)
GDP (nominal)	2022 estimate
• Total	$2.200 trillion (8th)
• Per capita	$56,794 (11th)
Gini (2018)	30.3; medium
HDI (2021)	0.936; very high · 15th
Currency	Canadian dollar ($) (CAD)
Time zone	UTC−3.5 to −8
• Summer (DST)	UTC−2.5 to −7
Date format	yyyy-mm-dd (AD)
Driving side	right
Calling code	+1
Internet TLD	.ca

Coordinates: 60°N 110°W / 60°N 110°W / 60; -110

Canada is a country in North America. Its ten provinces and three territories extend from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean and northward into the Arctic Ocean, covering over 9.98 million square kilometres (3.85 million square miles), making it the world's second-largest country by total area. Its southern and western border with the United States, stretching 8,891 kilometres (5,525 mi), is the world's longest binational land border. Canada's capital is Ottawa, and its three largest metropolitan areas are Toronto, Montreal, and Vancouver.

Indigenous peoples have continuously inhabited what is now Canada for thousands of years. Beginning in the 16th century, British and French expeditions explored and later settled along the Atlantic coast. As a consequence of various armed conflicts, France ceded nearly all of its colonies in North America in 1763. In 1867, with the union of three British North American colonies through Confederation, Canada was formed as a federal dominion of four provinces. This began an accretion of provinces and territories and a process of increasing autonomy from the United Kingdom. This widening autonomy was highlighted by the Statute of Westminster 1931 and culminated in the Canada Act 1982, which severed the vestiges of legal dependence on the Parliament of the United Kingdom.

Canada is a

gender equality and environmental sustainability. It is one of the world's most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, the product of large-scale immigration. Canada's long and complex relationship with the United States has had a significant impact on its economy and culture

.

A highly

Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), World Trade Organization (WTO), Commonwealth of Nations, Arctic Council, Organisation internationale de la Francophonie, Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation forum, and Organization of American States

.

Etymology

While a variety of theories have been postulated for the etymological origins of Canada, the name is now accepted as coming from the

Saint Lawrence River as Canada.^[10]

From the 16th to the early 18th century, "Canada" referred to the part of New France that lay along the Saint Lawrence River.^[11] In 1791, the area became two British colonies called Upper Canada and Lower Canada. These two colonies were collectively named the Canadas until their union as the British Province of Canada in 1841.^[12]

Upon

Dominion of Canada was no longer used by the United Kingdom, which considered Canada a "Realm of the Commonwealth".^[14] The government of Louis St. Laurent ended the practice of using Dominion in the statutes of Canada in 1951.^[15]^[16]^[17]

The Canada Act 1982, which brought the constitution of Canada fully under Canadian control, referred only to Canada. Later that year, the name of the national holiday was changed from Dominion Day to Canada Day.^[18] The term Dominion was used to distinguish the federal government from the provinces, though after the Second World War the term federal had replaced dominion.^[19]

History

Indigenous peoples

Métis,^[20] the last being of mixed descent who originated in the mid-17th century when First Nations people married European settlers and subsequently developed their own identity.^[20]

The

Paleo-Indian archeological sites at Old Crow Flats and Bluefish Caves are two of the oldest sites of human habitation in Canada.^[23] The characteristics of Indigenous societies included permanent settlements, agriculture, complex societal hierarchies, and trading networks.^[24]^[25] Some of these cultures had collapsed by the time European explorers arrived in the late 15th and early 16th centuries and have only been discovered through archeological investigations.^[26]

Linguistic areas of North American Indigenous peoples

at the time of European contact

The

Indigenous population at the time of the first European settlements is estimated to have been between 200,000^[27] and two million,^[28] with a figure of 500,000 accepted by Canada's Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples.^[29] As a consequence of European colonization, the Indigenous population declined by forty to eighty percent, and several First Nations, such as the Beothuk, disappeared.^[30] The decline is attributed to several causes, including the transfer of European diseases, such as influenza, measles, and smallpox to which they had no natural immunity,^[27]^[31] conflicts over the fur trade, conflicts with the colonial authorities and settlers, and the loss of Indigenous lands to settlers and the subsequent collapse of several nations' self-sufficiency.^[32]^[33]

Although not without conflict,

The Crown and Indigenous peoples began interactions during the European colonization period, though the Inuit, in general, had more limited interaction with European settlers.^[36] From the late 18th century, European Canadians forced Indigenous peoples to assimilate into a western culture.^[37] These attempts reached a climax in the late 19th and early 20th centuries with forced integration and relocations.^[38] A period of redress is underway, which started with the appointment of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada by the Government of Canada in 2008.^[39]

European colonization

Map of territorial claims in North America by 1750, before the French and Indian War, which was part of the greater worldwide conflict known as the Seven Years' War (1756 to 1763). Possessions of Britain (pink), New France

(blue), and Spain (orange; California, Pacific Northwest, and Great Basin not indicated)

It is believed that the first European to explore the east coast of Canada was

Portuguese establish seasonal whaling and fishing outposts along the Atlantic coast.^[45] In general, early settlements during the Age of Discovery appear to have been short-lived due to a combination of the harsh climate, problems with navigating trade routes and competing outputs in Scandinavia.^[46]^[47]

In 1583, Sir

Mississippi watershed to Louisiana.^[50] The Beaver Wars broke out in the mid-17th century over control of the North American fur trade.^[51]

The English established additional settlements in

Treaty of Utrecht, and Canada and most of New France came under British rule in 1763 after the Seven Years' War.^[55]

British North America

Benjamin West's The Death of General Wolfe (1771) dramatizes James Wolfe's death during the Battle of the Plains of Abraham at Quebec

.

The Royal Proclamation of 1763 established First Nation treaty rights, created the Province of Quebec out of New France, and annexed Cape Breton Island to Nova Scotia.^[18] St. John's Island (now Prince Edward Island) became a separate colony in 1769.^[56] To avert conflict in Quebec, the British Parliament passed the Quebec Act 1774, expanding Quebec's territory to the Great Lakes and Ohio Valley.^[57] More importantly, the Quebec Act afforded Quebec special autonomy and rights of self-administration at a time when the Thirteen Colonies were increasingly agitating against British rule.^[58] It re-established the French language, Catholic faith, and French civil law there, staving off the growth of an independence movement in contrast to the Thirteen Colonies.^[59] The Proclamation and the Quebec Act in turn angered many residents of the Thirteen Colonies, further fuelling anti-British sentiment in the years prior to the American Revolution.^[18]

After the successful American War of Independence, the

Loyalists, the settlers who had fought against American independence. Many moved to Canada, particularly Atlantic Canada, where their arrival changed the demographic distribution of the existing territories. New Brunswick was in turn split from Nova Scotia as part of a reorganization of Loyalist settlements in the Maritimes, which led to the incorporation of Saint John, New Brunswick, as Canada's first city.^[61] To accommodate the influx of English-speaking Loyalists in Central Canada, the Constitutional Act of 1791 divided the province of Canada into French-speaking Lower Canada (later Quebec) and English-speaking Upper Canada (later Ontario), granting each its own elected legislative assembly.^[62]

War of 1812 heroine Laura Secord warning British commander James FitzGibbon of an impending American attack at Beaver Dams

The Canadas were the main front in the

Great Irish Famine as well as Gaelic-speaking Scots displaced by the Highland Clearances.^[65] Infectious diseases killed between 25 and 33 percent of Europeans who immigrated to Canada before 1891.^[27]

The desire for

Rebellions of 1837.^[66] The Durham Report subsequently recommended responsible government and the assimilation of French Canadians into English culture.^[18] The Act of Union 1840 merged the Canadas into a united Province of Canada and responsible government was established for all provinces of British North America east of Lake Superior by 1855.^[67] The signing of the Oregon Treaty by Britain and the United States in 1846 ended the Oregon boundary dispute, extending the border westward along the 49th parallel. This paved the way for British colonies on Vancouver Island (1849) and in British Columbia (1858).^[68] The Anglo-Russian Treaty of Saint Petersburg (1825) established the border along the Pacific coast, but, even after the US Alaska Purchase of 1867, disputes continued about the exact demarcation of the Alaska–Yukon and Alaska–BC border.^[69]

Confederation and expansion

Animated map showing the growth and change of Canada's provinces and territories

since Confederation in 1867

Following several constitutional conferences, the British North America Act 1867 officially proclaimed Canadian Confederation on July 1, 1867, initially with four provinces: Ontario, Quebec, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick.^[70]^[71] Canada assumed control of Rupert's Land and the North-Western Territory to form the Northwest Territories, where the Métis' grievances ignited the Red River Rebellion and the creation of the province of Manitoba in July 1870.^[72] British Columbia and Vancouver Island (which had been united in 1866) joined the confederation in 1871 on the promise of a transcontinental railway extending to Victoria in the province within 10 years,^[73] while Prince Edward Island joined in 1873.^[74] In 1898, during the Klondike Gold Rush in the Northwest Territories, Parliament created the Yukon Territory. Alberta and Saskatchewan became provinces in 1905.^[74] Between 1871 and 1896, almost one quarter of the Canadian population emigrated south to the US.^[75]

To open the West and encourage European immigration, Parliament approved sponsoring the construction of three transcontinental railways (including the Canadian Pacific Railway), opening the prairies to settlement with the Dominion Lands Act, and establishing the North-West Mounted Police to assert its authority over this territory.^[76]^[77] This period of westward expansion and nation building resulted in the displacement of many Indigenous peoples of the Canadian Prairies to "Indian reserves",^[78] clearing the way for ethnic European block settlements.^[79] This caused the collapse of the Plains Bison in western Canada and the introduction of European cattle farms and wheat fields dominating the land.^[80] The Indigenous peoples saw widespread famine and disease due to the loss of the bison and their traditional hunting lands.^[81] The federal government did provide emergency relief, on condition of the Indigenous peoples moving to the reserves.^[82] During this time, Canada introduced the Indian Act extending its control over the First Nations to education, government and legal rights.^[83]

Early 20th century

1918

The same poster in English, with subtle differences in text. "They serve France—How can I serve Canada? Buy Victory Bonds".

Because Britain still maintained control of Canada's foreign affairs under the British North America Act, 1867, its declaration of war in 1914 automatically brought Canada into World War I.^[84] Volunteers sent to the Western Front later became part of the Canadian Corps, which played a substantial role in the Battle of Vimy Ridge and other major engagements of the war.^[85] Out of approximately 625,000 Canadians who served in World War I, some 60,000 were killed and another 172,000 were wounded.^[86] The Conscription Crisis of 1917 erupted when the Unionist Cabinet's proposal to augment the military's dwindling number of active members with conscription was met with vehement objections from French-speaking Quebecers.^[87] The Military Service Act brought in compulsory military service, though it, coupled with disputes over French language schools outside Quebec, deeply alienated Francophone Canadians and temporarily split the Liberal Party.^[87] In 1919, Canada joined the League of Nations independently of Britain,^[85] and the Statute of Westminster, 1931 affirmed Canada's independence.^[88]

The Great Depression in Canada during the early 1930s saw an economic downturn, leading to hardship across the country.^[89] In response to the downturn, the Co-operative Commonwealth Federation (CCF) in Saskatchewan introduced many elements of a welfare state (as pioneered by Tommy Douglas) in the 1940s and 1950s.^[90] On the advice of Prime Minister William Lyon Mackenzie King, war with Germany was declared effective September 10, 1939, by King George VI, seven days after the United Kingdom. The delay underscored Canada's independence.^[85]

The first Canadian Army units arrived in Britain in December 1939. In all, over a million Canadians served in the armed forces during

Dutch monarchy while that country was occupied and is credited by the Netherlands for major contributions to its liberation from Nazi Germany.^[92]

The Canadian economy boomed during the war as its industries manufactured military materiel for Canada, Britain, China, and the Soviet Union.^[85] Despite another Conscription Crisis in Quebec in 1944, Canada finished the war with a large army and strong economy.^[93]

Contemporary era

The financial crisis of the Great Depression had led the Dominion of Newfoundland to relinquish responsible government in 1934 and become a Crown colony ruled by a British governor.^[94] After two referendums, Newfoundlanders voted to join Canada in 1949 as a province.^[95]

Canada's post-war economic growth, combined with the policies of successive Liberal governments, led to the emergence of a new

Canada Student Loans, though provincial governments, particularly Quebec and Alberta, opposed many of these as incursions into their jurisdictions.^[99]

A copy of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms

Finally, another series of constitutional conferences resulted in the UK's Canada Act 1982, the patriation of Canada's constitution from the United Kingdom, concurrent with the creation of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms.^[100]^[101]^[102] Canada had established complete sovereignty as an independent country under its own monarchy.^[103]^[104] In 1999, Nunavut became Canada's third territory after a series of negotiations with the federal government.^[105]

At the same time, Quebec underwent profound social and economic changes through the Quiet Revolution of the 1960s, giving birth to a secular nationalist movement.^[106] The radical Front de libération du Québec (FLQ) ignited the October Crisis with a series of bombings and kidnappings in 1970^[107] and the sovereignist Parti Québécois was elected in 1976, organizing an unsuccessful referendum on sovereignty-association in 1980. Attempts to accommodate Quebec nationalism constitutionally through the Meech Lake Accord failed in 1990.^[108] This led to the formation of the Bloc Québécois in Quebec and the invigoration of the Reform Party of Canada in the West.^[109]^[110] A second referendum followed in 1995, in which sovereignty was rejected by a slimmer margin of 50.6 to 49.4 percent.^[111] In 1997, the Supreme Court ruled unilateral secession by a province would be unconstitutional and the Clarity Act was passed by parliament, outlining the terms of a negotiated departure from Confederation.^[108]

In addition to the issues of Quebec sovereignty, a number of crises shook Canadian society in the late 1980s and early 1990s. These included the explosion of

UNPROFOR mission in the former Yugoslavia.^[116] Canada sent troops to Afghanistan in 2001 but declined to join the United States–led invasion of Iraq in 2003.^[117]

In 2011, Canadian forces participated in the NATO-led intervention into the

Canadian Indian residential schools.^[121] Administered by the Canadian Catholic Church and funded by the Canadian government from 1828 to 1997, these boarding schools attempted to assimilate Indigenous children into Euro-Canadian culture.^[122]

Geography

A topographic map of Canada, in polar projection (for 90° W), showing elevations shaded from green to brown (higher)

By total area (including its waters), Canada is the

Kingdom of Denmark) to the northeast on Hans Island^[128] and a maritime boundary with France's overseas collectivity of Saint Pierre and Miquelon to the southeast.^[129] Canada is also home to the world's northernmost settlement, Canadian Forces Station Alert, on the northern tip of Ellesmere Island—latitude 82.5°N—which lies 817 kilometres (508 mi) from the North Pole.^[130]

Canada can be divided into seven physiographic regions: the

Great Lakes-St. Lawrence Lowlands, the Appalachian region, the Western Cordillera, Hudson Bay Lowlands and the Arctic Archipelago.^[131] Boreal forests prevail throughout the country, ice is prominent in northern Arctic regions and through the Rocky Mountains, and the relatively flat Canadian Prairies in the southwest facilitate productive agriculture.^[125] The Great Lakes feed the St. Lawrence River (in the southeast) where the lowlands host much of Canada's economic output.^[125] Canada has over 2,000,000 lakes—563 of which are larger than 100 km² (39 sq mi)—containing much of the world's fresh water.^[132]^[133] There are also fresh-water glaciers in the Canadian Rockies, the Coast Mountains and the Arctic Cordillera.^[134] Canada is geologically active, having many earthquakes and potentially active volcanoes, notably Mount Meager massif, Mount Garibaldi, Mount Cayley, and the Mount Edziza volcanic complex.^[135]

Climate

Köppen climate classification types of Canada

Average winter and summer high temperatures across Canada vary from region to region. Winters can be harsh in many parts of the country, particularly in the interior and Prairie provinces, which experience a continental climate, where daily average temperatures are near −15 °C (5 °F), but can drop below −40 °C (−40 °F) with severe wind chills.^[136] In non-coastal regions, snow can cover the ground for almost six months of the year, while in parts of the north snow can persist year-round. Coastal British Columbia has a temperate climate, with a mild and rainy winter. On the east and west coasts, average high temperatures are generally in the low 20s °C (70s °F), while between the coasts, the average summer high temperature ranges from 25 to 30 °C (77 to 86 °F), with temperatures in some interior locations occasionally exceeding 40 °C (104 °F).^[137]

Much of Northern Canada is covered by ice and permafrost. The future of the permafrost is uncertain because the Arctic has been warming at three times the global average as a result of climate change in Canada.^[138] Canada's annual average temperature over land has risen by 1.7 °C (3.1 °F), with changes ranging from 1.1 to 2.3 °C (2.0 to 4.1 °F) in various regions, since 1948.^[139] The rate of warming has been higher across the North and in the Prairies.^[139] In the southern regions of Canada, air pollution from both Canada and the United States—caused by metal smelting, burning coal to power utilities, and vehicle emissions—has resulted in acid rain, which has severely impacted waterways, forest growth and agricultural productivity in Canada.^[140]

Biodiversity

Terrestrial ecozones and ecoprovinces of Canada

. Ecozones are identified with a unique colour. Ecoprovinces are subdivisions of ecozones and are identified with a unique numeric code.

Canada is divided into fifteen terrestrial and five marine ecozones.^[141] These ecozones encompass over 80,000 classified species of Canadian wildlife, with an equal number yet to be formally recognized or discovered.^[142] Although Canada has a low percentage of endemic species compared to other countries,^[143] due to human activities, invasive species and environmental issues in the country, there are currently more than 800 species at risk of being lost.^[144] About 65 percent of Canada's resident species are considered "Secure".^[145] Over half of Canada's landscape is intact and relatively free of human development.^[146] The boreal forest of Canada is considered to be the largest intact forest on Earth, with approximately 3,000,000 km² (1,200,000 sq mi) undisturbed by roads, cities or industry.^[147] Since the end of the last glacial period, Canada has consisted of eight distinct forest regions,^[148] with 42 percent of its land area covered by forests (approximately 8 percent of the world's forested land).^[149]

Approximately 12.1 percent of the nation's landmass and freshwater are

seabirds.^[156] Canada's 18 UNESCO Biosphere Reserves cover a total area of 235,000 square kilometres (91,000 sq mi).^[157]

Government and politics

A building with a central clock tower rising from a block

Parliament Hill, home of the federal government in Canada's capital city, Ottawa

Canada is described as a "full democracy",^[158] with a tradition of liberalism,^[159] and an egalitarian,^[160] moderate political ideology.^[161] An emphasis on social justice has been a distinguishing element of Canada's political culture.^[162]^[163] Peace, order, and good government, alongside an Implied Bill of Rights, are founding principles of the Canadian government.^[164]^[165]

At the federal level, Canada has been dominated by two relatively

far-left politics have never been a prominent force in Canadian society.^[177]^[178]^[179] Five parties had representatives elected to the Parliament in the 2021 election—the Liberal Party, who currently form a minority government; the Conservative Party, who are the Official Opposition; the New Democratic Party; the Bloc Québécois; and the Green Party of Canada.^[180]

Canada has a

British monarch, although the two institutions are separate.^[185] The monarch appoints a representative, the governor general, with the advice of the prime minister to carry out most of their federal royal duties in Canada.^[186]^[187]

While the monarchy is the source of authority in Canada, in practice its position is symbolic.[184]^[188]^[189] The use of the executive powers is directed by the Cabinet, a committee of ministers of the Crown responsible to the elected House of Commons and chosen and headed by the prime minister (at present Justin Trudeau),^[190] the head of government. The governor general or monarch may, though, in certain crisis situations exercise their power without ministerial advice.^[188] To ensure the stability of government, the governor general will usually appoint as prime minister the individual who is the current leader of the political party that can obtain the confidence of a plurality in the House of Commons.^[191] The Prime Minister's Office (PMO) is thus one of the most powerful institutions in government, initiating most legislation for parliamentary approval and selecting for appointment by the Crown, besides the aforementioned, the governor general, lieutenant governors, senators, federal court judges, and heads of Crown corporations and government agencies.^[188] The leader of the party with the second-most seats usually becomes the leader of the Official Opposition and is part of an adversarial parliamentary system intended to keep the government in check.^[192]

Canadian Senate chamber long hall with two opposing banks of seats with historical paintings

The Senate chamber within the Centre Block on Parliament Hill

Each of the 338

confidence vote in the House.^[193]^[194] The Constitution Act, 1982 requires that no more than five years pass between elections, although the Canada Elections Act limits this to four years with a fixed election date in October. The 105 members of the Senate, whose seats are apportioned on a regional basis, serve until age 75.^[195]

unicameral and operate in parliamentary fashion similar to the House of Commons.^[189] Canada's three territories also have legislatures, but these are not sovereign and have fewer constitutional responsibilities than the provinces.^[196] The territorial legislatures also differ structurally from their provincial counterparts.^[197]

The Bank of Canada is the central bank of the country. The minister of finance and minister of innovation, science and industry use the Statistics Canada agency for financial planning and economic policy development.^[198] The Bank of Canada is the sole authority authorized to issue currency in the form of Canadian bank notes.^[199] The bank does not issue Canadian coins; they are issued by the Royal Canadian Mint.^[200]

Law

The Constitution of Canada is the supreme law of the country and consists of written text and unwritten conventions.^[201] The Constitution Act, 1867 (known as the British North America Act, 1867 prior to 1982), affirmed governance based on parliamentary precedent and divided powers between the federal and provincial governments.^[202] The Statute of Westminster, 1931, granted full autonomy, and the'Constitution Act, 1982, ended all legislative ties to Britain, as well as adding a constitutional amending formula and the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms.^[203] The Charter guarantees basic rights and freedoms that usually cannot be over-ridden by any government—though a notwithstanding clause allows Parliament and the provincial legislatures to override certain sections of the Charter for a period of five years.^[204]

The Supreme Court of Canada

in Ottawa, west of Parliament Hill

Canada's judiciary plays an important role in interpreting laws and has the power to strike down Acts of Parliament that violate the constitution. The Supreme Court of Canada is the highest court and final arbiter and has been led since December 18, 2017, by Richard Wagner, the chief justice of Canada.^[205] The governor general appoints its nine members on the advice of the prime minister and minister of justice. All judges at the superior and appellate levels are appointed after consultation with non-governmental legal bodies. The federal Cabinet also appoints justices to superior courts in the provincial and territorial jurisdictions.^[206]

Common law prevails everywhere except in Quebec, where civil law predominates.^[207] Criminal law is solely a federal responsibility and is uniform throughout Canada.^[208] Law enforcement, including criminal courts, is officially a provincial responsibility, conducted by provincial and municipal police forces.^[209] In most rural and some urban areas, policing responsibilities are contracted to the federal Royal Canadian Mounted Police.^[210]

Canadian Aboriginal law provides certain constitutionally recognized rights to land and traditional practices for Indigenous groups in Canada.^[211] Various treaties and case laws were established to mediate relations between Europeans and many Indigenous peoples.^[212] Most notably, a series of eleven treaties known as the Numbered Treaties were signed between the Indigenous peoples and the reigning monarch of Canada between 1871 and 1921.^[213] These treaties are agreements between the Canadian Crown-in-Council with the duty to consult and accommodate.^[214] The role of Aboriginal law and the rights they support were reaffirmed by section 35 of the Constitution Act, 1982.^[212] These rights may include provision of services, such as health care through the Indian Health Transfer Policy, and exemption from taxation.^[215]

Foreign relations and military

The Canadian delegation to the United Nations Conference on International Organization

, San Francisco, May 1945

Canada is recognized as a

Canada's peacekeeping role during the 20th century has played a major role in its global image.^[219]^[220] The strategy of the Canadian government's foreign aid policy reflects an emphasis to meet the Millennium Development Goals, while also providing assistance in response to foreign humanitarian crises.^[221]

Canada was a founding member of the United Nations and has membership in the

Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD).^[216] Canada is also a member of various other international and regional organizations and forums for economic and cultural affairs.^[222] Canada acceded to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights in 1976.^[223] Canada joined the Organization of American States (OAS) in 1990 and hosted the OAS General Assembly in 2000 and the 3rd Summit of the Americas in 2001.^[224] Canada seeks to expand its ties to Pacific Rim economies through membership in the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation forum (APEC).^[225]

Canada and the United States share the world's longest undefended border, co-operate on military campaigns and exercises, and are each other's largest trading partner.^[226]^[227] Canada nevertheless has an independent foreign policy.^[228] For example, it maintains full relations with Cuba and declined to participate in the 2003 invasion of Iraq.^[229]

Canada maintains historic ties to the

Dutch liberation during World War II.^[92]

Canada's strong attachment to the British Empire and Commonwealth led to major participation in British military efforts in the

North American Aerospace Defense Command (NORAD) in cooperation with the United States to defend against potential aerial attacks from the Soviet Union.^[234]

A Canadian McDonnell Douglas CF-18 Hornet in Cold Lake, Alberta

During the Suez Crisis of 1956, future prime minister Lester B. Pearson eased tensions by proposing the inception of the United Nations Peacekeeping Force, for which he was awarded the 1957 Nobel Peace Prize.^[235] As this was the first UN peacekeeping mission, Pearson is often credited as the inventor of the concept.^[236] Canada has since served in over 50 peacekeeping missions, including every UN peacekeeping effort until 1989,^[85] and has since maintained forces in international missions in Rwanda, the former Yugoslavia, and elsewhere; Canada has sometimes faced controversy over its involvement in foreign countries, notably in the 1993 Somalia affair.^[237]

In 2001, Canada deployed troops to Afghanistan as part of the US stabilization force and the UN-authorized, NATO-led International Security Assistance Force.^[238] In August 2007, Canada's territorial claims in the Arctic were challenged after a Russian underwater expedition to the North Pole; Canada has considered that area to be sovereign territory since 1925.^[239]

The unified

military intervention against ISIL.^[245]

Provinces and territories

Political map of Canada showing its 10 provinces and 3 territories

Canada is a federation composed of ten

federal territories. In turn, these may be grouped into four main regions: Western Canada, Central Canada, Atlantic Canada, and Northern Canada (Eastern Canada refers to Central Canada and Atlantic Canada together).^[246] Provinces and territories have responsibility for social programs such as health care, education, and welfare,^[247] as well as administration of justice (but not criminal law). Together, the provinces collect more revenue than the federal government, a rarity among other federations in the world. Using its spending powers, the federal government can initiate national policies in provincial areas such as health and child care; the provinces can opt out of these cost-share programs but rarely do so in practice. Equalization payments are made by the federal government to ensure reasonably uniform standards of services and taxation are kept between the richer and poorer provinces.^[248]

The major difference between a Canadian province and a territory is that provinces receive their power and authority from the Constitution Act, 1867, whereas territorial governments have powers delegated to them by the Parliament of Canada.^[249] The powers flowing from the Constitution Act, 1867, are divided between the federal government and the provincial governments to exercise exclusively.^[250] As the division of powers between the federal government and the provinces is defined in the constitution, any changes require a constitutional amendment. The territories being creatures of the federal government, changes to their role and division of powers may be performed unilaterally by the Parliament of Canada.^[251]

Economy

The Toronto financial district is the second-largest financial centre in North America, the seventh-largest globally in employment and the heart of Canada's finance industry.^[252]

Canada has a

disposable income per capita is "well above" the OECD average.^[260] The Toronto Stock Exchange is the ninth-largest stock exchange in the world by market capitalization, listing over 1,500 companies with a combined market capitalization of over US$2 trillion.^[261]

In 2021, Canadian trade in goods and services reached $2.016 trillion.

trade deficit in goods of $22 billion and a trade deficit in services of $25 billion.^[262]

Since the early 20th century, the growth of Canada's manufacturing, mining, and service sectors has transformed the nation from a largely rural economy to an urbanized, industrial one.[263] Like many other developed countries, the Canadian economy is dominated by the service industry, which employs about three-quarters of the country's workforce.^[264] Among developed countries, Canada has an unusually important primary sector, of which the forestry and petroleum industries are the most prominent components.^[265]

Canada

Countries and territories with free-trade agreements

Canada's economic integration with the United States has increased significantly since

Canada – United States Free Trade Agreement (FTA) of 1988 eliminated tariffs between the two countries, while the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) expanded the free-trade zone to include Mexico in 1994 (later replaced by the Canada–United States–Mexico Agreement).^[270] Canada has a strong cooperative banking sector, with the world's highest per-capita membership in credit unions.^[271]

Canada is one of the few developed nations that are net exporters of energy.

coking coal, lead, copper, molybdenum, cobalt, and cadmium.^[275] Many towns in northern Canada, where agriculture is difficult, are sustained by nearby mines or sources of timber. Canada also has a sizeable manufacturing sector centred in southern Ontario and Quebec, with automobiles and aeronautics representing particularly important industries.^[276]

Science and technology

In 2019, Canada spent approximately $40.3 billion on domestic research and development, of which over $7 billion was provided by the federal and provincial governments.^[277] As of 2020^[update], the country has produced fifteen Nobel laureates in physics, chemistry, and medicine,^[278] and was ranked fourth worldwide for scientific research quality in a major 2012 survey of international scientists.^[279] It is furthermore home to the headquarters of a number of global technology firms.^[280] Canada has one of the highest levels of Internet access in the world, with over 33 million users, equivalent to around 94 percent of its total 2014 population.^[281] Canada was ranked 15th in the Global Innovation Index in 2022.^[282]

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v t e Largest metropolitan areas in Canada 2021 Canadian census
Rank	Name	Province	Pop.	Rank	Name	Province	Pop.
1	Toronto	Ontario	6,202,225	11	London	Ontario	543,551
2	Montreal	Quebec	4,291,732	12	Halifax	Nova Scotia	465,703
3	Vancouver	British Columbia	2,642,825	13	St. Catharines–Niagara	Ontario	433,604
4	Ottawa–Gatineau	Ontario–Quebec	1,488,307	14	Windsor	Ontario	422,630
5	Calgary	Alberta	1,481,806	15	Oshawa	Ontario	415,311
6	Edmonton	Alberta	1,418,118	16	Victoria	British Columbia	397,237
7	Quebec City	Quebec	839,311	17	Saskatoon	Saskatchewan	317,480
8	Winnipeg	Manitoba	834,678	18	Regina	Saskatchewan	249,217
9	Hamilton	Ontario	785,184	19	Sherbrooke	Quebec	227,398
10	Kitchener–Cambridge–Waterloo	Ontario	575,847	20	Kelowna	British Columbia	222,162

Canada

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