Canoe
A canoe is a lightweight narrow water vessel, typically pointed at both ends and open on top, propelled by one or more seated or kneeling paddlers facing the direction of travel and using paddles.[2]
In British English, the term canoe can also refer to a kayak, while canoes are then called Canadian or open canoes to distinguish them from kayaks. However, for official competition purposes, the American distinction between a kayak and a canoe is almost always adopted.[3]
Culture
The culture of the First Nations of Quebec, Canada, and North America was largely based on birch. The birch bark canoe was a true work of art that provided these hunting peoples with the mobility essential to this way of life.[4]
Canoes were developed by cultures all over the world, including some designed for use with sails or outriggers. Until the mid-19th century, the canoe was an important means of transport for exploration and trade, and in some places is still used as such, sometimes with the addition of an outboard motor. Where the canoe played a key role in history, such as the Northern United States, Canada, and New Zealand, it remains an important theme in popular culture.
Canoes are now
History
The word canoe came into English from the Spanish/Portuguese word canoa. They in turn had adopted the word from the Arawakan languages of the Caribbean for a dugout canoe, kanawa.[6]
Dugouts
Many peoples made dugout canoes, by carving out a single piece of wood; either a whole trunk, or a slab of trunk from particularly large trees.[7][8]
Constructed between 8200 and 7600 BC, and found in the Netherlands, the Pesse canoe may be one of the oldest known canoe. Excavations in Denmark reveal the use of dugouts and paddles during the Ertebølle period, (c. 5300 – c. 3950 BC).[9]
One of the oldest canoes in the world is the Dufuna canoe in Nigeria. It is the oldest boat to be discovered in Africa, and, by varying accounts, either the second or third oldest known worldwide.[10] The canoe is currently in Damaturu, the Yobe State capital.[10]
Canoes have also played a vital role in the colonisation of the
Native American groups of the
Bark canoes
Australia
Some
Americas
Many indigenous peoples of the Americas built bark canoes. They were usually skinned with birch bark over a light wooden frame, but other types could be used if birch was scarce. At a typical length of 4.3 m (14 ft) and weight of 23 kg (50 lb), the canoes were light enough to be portaged, yet could carry a lot of cargo, even in shallow water. Although susceptible to damage from rocks, they are easily repaired.[24] Their performance qualities were soon recognized by early European settler colonials, and canoes played a key role in the exploration of North America,[25] with Samuel de Champlain canoeing as far as the Georgian Bay in 1615.
In 1603 a canoe was brought to
The first explorer to cross the North American continent, Alexander Mackenzie, used canoes extensively, as did David Thompson and the Lewis and Clark Expedition.
In the North American fur trade the Hudson's Bay Company's voyageurs used three types of canoe:[31]
- The rabaska or canot du maître was designed for the long haul from the St. Lawrence River to western Lake Superior. Its dimensions were: length approximately 11 m (35 ft), beam 1.2 to 1.8 m (4 to 6 ft), and height about 76 cm (30 in). It could carry 60 packs weighing 41 kg (90 lb), and 910 kg (2,000 lb) of provisions. With a crew of eight or ten (paddling or rowing), they could make three knots over calm waters. Four to six men could portage it, bottom up. Henry Schoolcraft declared it "altogether one of the most eligible modes of conveyance that can be employed upon the lakes". Archibald McDonald of the Hudson's Bay Company wrote: "I never heard of such a canoe being wrecked, or upset, or swamped ... they swam like ducks."[32]
- The canot du nord (French: "canoe of the north"), a craft specially made and adapted for speedy travel, was the workhorse of the fur trade transportation system. About one-half the size of the Montreal canoe, it could carry about 35 packs weighing 41 kg (90 lb) and was manned by four to eight men. It could be carried by two men and was portaged in the upright position.[32]
- The express canoe or canot léger, was about 4.6 m (15 ft) long and were used to carry people, reports, and news.
The birch bark canoe was used in a 6,500-kilometre (4,000 mi) supply route from Montreal to the Pacific Ocean and the Mackenzie River, and continued to be used up to the end of the 19th century.[33]
The
Skin canoes
Skin canoes are constructed using animal skins stretched over a framework. Examples include the kayak and umiak.
Modern canoes
In 19th-century North America, the birch-on-frame construction technique evolved into the wood-and-canvas canoes made by fastening an external waterproofed canvas shell to planks and ribs by boat builders such as Old Town Canoe, E. M. White Canoe, Peterborough Canoe Company and at the Chestnut Canoe Company[36] in New Brunswick. While similar to bark canoes in the use of ribs, and a waterproof covering, the construction method is different, being built by bending ribs over a solid mold. Once removed from the mold, the decks, thwarts and seats are installed, and canvas is stretched tightly over the hull. The canvas is then treated with a combination of varnishes and paints to render it more durable and watertight.[37]
Although canoes were once primarily a means of transport, with industrialization they became popular as
Hull design
Hull design must meet different, often conflicting, requirements for speed, carrying capacity, maneuverability, and stability[39] The canoe's hull speed can be calculated using the principles of ship resistance and propulsion.
- Length: this is often stated by manufacturers as the displacement hulls: the longer the waterline relative to its displacement, the faster it can be paddled. Among general touring canoeists, 5.18 m (17 ft) is a popular length, providing a good compromise between capacity and cruising speed.[40]Too large a canoe will simply mean extra work paddling at cruising speed.
- Width (beam): a wider boat provides more stability at the expense of speed. A canoe cuts through the water like a wedge, and a shorter boat needs a narrower beam to reduce the angle of the wedge cutting through the water.[40] Canoe manufacturers typically provide three beam measurements: the gunwale (the measurement at the top of the hull), the waterline (the measurement at the point where the surface of the water meets the hull when it is empty), and the widest point. Another variation of the waterline beam measurement is called 4" waterline where the displacement is taken into account. This measurement is done at the waterline level when the maximum load is applied to the canoe.[41] Some canoe races use the 4" waterline beam measurement as the standard for their regulations.[42] In races, the measurement is done by measuring the widest point at 4 inches (10 cm) from the bottom of the canoe.[43]
- Freeboard: a higher-sided boat stays drier in rough water. The cost of high sides is extra weight, extra wind resistance[40] and increased susceptibility to cross-winds.
- Stability and immersed bottom shape: the hull can be optimized for initial stability (the boat feels steady when it sits flat on the water) or final stability (resistance to rolling and capsizing). A flatter-bottomed hull has higher initial stability, versus a rounder or V-shaped hull in cross-section has high final stability.[44] The fastest flat water non-racing canoes have sharp V-bottoms to cut through the water, but they are difficult to turn and have a deeper draft which makes them less suitable for shallows. Flat-bottomed canoes are most popular among recreational canoeists. At the cost of speed, they have a shallow draft, turn better, and more cargo space. The reason a flat bottom canoe has lower final stability is that the hull must wrap a sharper angle between the bottom and the sides, compared to a more round-bottomed boat.[40]
- Keel: an external keel makes a canoe track (hold its course) better and can stiffen a floppy bottom, but it can get stuck on rocks and decrease stability in rapids.[44]
- Profile, the shape of the canoe's sides. Sides that flare out above the waterline deflect water but require the paddler to reach out over the side of the canoe more. If the gunwale width is less than the maximum width the canoe is said to have tumblehome.
- Rocker: viewed from the side of the canoe, rocker is the amount of curve in the hull, much like the curve of a banana. The full length of the hull is in the water, so it tracks well and has good speed. As the rocker increases, so does the ease of turning, at the cost of tracking.[45] Some Native American birch-bark canoes were characterized by extreme rocker.[40]
- Hull symmetry: viewed from above, a symmetrical hull has its widest point at the center of the hull and both ends are identical. An asymmetrical hull typically has the widest section aft of centerline, creating a longer bow and improving speed.[45]
Modern materials and construction
Plastic
Royalex is a composite material, comprising an outer layer of vinyl and hard acrylonitrile butadiene styrene plastic (ABS) and an inner layer of ABS foam, bonded by heat treatment.[46] As a canoe material, Royalex is lighter, more resistant to UV damage, is more rigid, and has greater structural memory than non-composite plastics such as polyethylene. Royalex canoes are, however, more expensive than aluminium canoes or canoes made from traditionally molded or roto-molded polyethylene hulls.[46] It is heavier, and less suited for high-performance paddling than fiber-reinforced composites, such as fiberglass, kevlar, or graphite. Roto-molded polyethylene is a cheaper alternative to Royalex. Production of Royalex ceased in 2014.
Inflatable: These contain no rigid frame members and can be deflated, folded, and stored in a bag. The more durable types consist of an abrasion-resistant nylon or rubber outer shell, with separate PVC air chambers for the two side tubes and the floor.[47]
Fiber reinforced composites
Modern canoes are generally constructed by layering a fiber material inside a "female" mold.
A gel coat on the outside gives a smoother appearance.[40]
With stitch and glue, plywood panels are stitched together to form a hull shape, and the seams are reinforced with fiber reinforced composites and varnished.
A cedar strip canoe is essentially a composite canoe with a cedar core. Usually fiberglass is used to reinforce the canoe since it is clear and allows a view of the cedar.
Aluminum
Before the invention of fiberglass, aluminum was the standard choice for whitewater canoeing due to its value and strength by weight.[40] This material was once more popular but is being replaced by modern lighter materials. "It is tough, durable, and will take being dragged over the bottom very well", as it has no gel or polymer outer coating which would make it subject to abrasion. The hull does not degrade from long term exposure to sunlight, and "extremes of hot and cold do not affect the material". It can dent, is difficult to repair, is noisy, can get stuck on underwater objects, and requires buoyancy chambers to assist in keeping the canoe afloat in a capsize.[49]
In culture
In Canada, the canoe has been a theme in history and folklore, and is a symbol of
The
In
The
Types
Modern canoe types are usually categorized by the intended use. Many modern canoe designs are hybrids (a combination of two or more designs, meant for multiple uses). The purpose of the canoe will also often determine the materials used. Most canoes are designed for either one person (solo) or two people (tandem), but some are designed for more than two people.
Sprint
Slalom and wildwater
In ICF
In ICF
Marathon
Marathons are long-distance races which may include portages. Under ICF rules minimum canoe weight is 10 and 14 kg (22 and 31 lb) for C1 and C2 respectively. Other rules can vary by race. For example, athletes in the Classique Internationale de Canots de la Mauricie race in C2s, with a maximum length of 5.6 m (18 ft 6 in), minimum width of 69 cm (27 in) at 8 cm (3 in) from the bottom of the centre of the craft, minimum height of 38 cm (15 in) at the bow and 25 cm (10 in) at the centre and stern.[58] The Texas Water Safari, at 422 km (262 mi), includes an open class, the only rule being the vessel must be human-powered. Although novel setups have been tried, the fastest so far has been the six-man canoe.[59]
Touring
A "touring" or "tripping" canoe is a boat for traveling on lakes and rivers with capacity for camping gear. Tripping canoes, such as the Chestnut Prospector and Old Town Tripper derivates, are touring canoes for wilderness trips. They are typically made of heavier and tougher materials and designed with the ability to carry large amounts of gear while being maneuverable enough for rivers with some whitewater. Prospector is now a generic name for derivates of the Chestnut model, a popular type of wilderness tripping canoe. The Prospector is marked by a shallow arch hull with a relatively large amount of rocker, giving optimal balance for wilderness tripping over lakes and rivers with some rapids.
A touring canoe is sometimes covered with a greatly extended deck, forming a "cockpit" for the paddlers. A cockpit has the advantage that the gunwales can be made lower and narrower so the paddler can reach the water more easily.
Freestyle
A freestyle canoe is specialized for whitewater play and tricks. Most are identical to short, flat-bottomed kayak playboats except for their internal outfitting. The paddler kneels and uses a single-blade canoe paddle. Playboating is a discipline of whitewater canoeing where the paddler performs various technical moves in one place (a playspot), as opposed to downriver where the objective is to travel the length of a section of river (although whitewater canoeists will often stop and play en route). Specialized canoes known as playboats can be used.
Square-stern canoe
A square-stern canoe is an asymmetrical canoe with a squared-off stern for the mounting of an outboard motor, and is meant for lake travel or fishing. Since mounting a rudder on the square stern is very easy, such canoes often are adapted for sailing.
Canoe launches
A canoe launch is a place for launching canoes, similar to a
Gallery
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Frances Anne Hopkins (1838–1919): Canoe Manned by Voyageurs Passing a Waterfall
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Paul Kane (1810–1871): Spearing Salmon By Torchlight, oil painting
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Ojibwe women in canoe on Leech Lake, Bromley 1896
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Canoe in Kerala, India, 2008
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Canoe in Vietnam in theMekong delta, 2009
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packed canoes at the beach
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Canoe At sea
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Square back canoe with a small outboard motor
See also
References
- ^ "Amerindian Museum of Mashteuiat". 2024. Retrieved 21 April 2024.
Our team is composed of members from the Pekuakamiulnuatsh First Nation
- ^ "Bark Canoe Construction". Canadian Museum of History. Government of Canada. Retrieved 21 April 2024.
In Canada, the most popular bark for canoe construction has come from the paper birch
- ^ Canoe Sprint at British Canoeing. Retrieved 2 July 2023.
- ^ Frère Marie-Victorin (1935). "The birch bark canoe, an exceptional reign". florelaurentienne.com (in French). florelaurentienne.com. pp. 150 of 925. Retrieved 21 April 2024.
Betula papyrifera Marshall. — Bouleau à papier. — Bouleau blanc, Bouleau à canot. — (Canoë birch).
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- ^ a b "Aboriginal canoe trees around found along the Murray River". Discover Murray River. Retrieved 18 March 2020.
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This paper was read before Section F of the Biennial Meeting of the Australian and New Zealand Association for the Advancement of Science, held at Adelaide in August, 1946.
- ^ "Bark canoes". Canadian Museum of Civilization. Retrieved 8 October 2012.
- ^ "Our Canoeing Heritage". The Canadian Canoe Museum. Retrieved 8 October 2012.
- ^ Alden T. Vaughan, Transatlantic Encounters: American Indians in Britain, 1500-1776 (Cambridge, 2006), p. 43.
- ^ Hodge, Frederick Webb (1917). Proceedings of the Nineteenth International Congress of Americanists: Held at Washington, December 27–31, 1915. International Congress of Americanists. p. 280.
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- ^ Kellogg, Louise Phelps (1917). Early Narratives of the Northwest. 1634–1699. New York. pp. 172–173.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - ^ Catlin, George (1989). Letters and Notes on the Manners. Customs, and Conditions of the North American Indians (reprint ed.). New York. p. 415.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - ^ "The Canoe". The Hudson's Bay Company. Archived from the original on 5 November 2012. Retrieved 6 October 2012.
- ^ a b "Portage Trails in Minnesota, 1630s–1870s". United States Department of the Interior National Park Service. Retrieved 20 November 2012.
- ^ "Canoeing". The Canadian Encyclopedia. Archived from the original on 20 October 2012. Retrieved 8 October 2012.
- ^ Margry, Pierre (1876–1886). Decouvertes et etablissements des francais dans I'ouest et dans le sud de I'Amerique Septentrionale (1614–1754). 6 vols. Paris.
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: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - ^ Tom Vennum, Charles Weber, Earl Nyholm (Director) (1999). Earl's Canoe: A Traditional Ojibwe Craft. Smithsonian Center for Folklife Programs and Cultural Studies. Archived from the original on 4 January 2013. Retrieved 3 December 2012.
- ^ "A Venerable Chestnut". Canada Science and Technology Museum. Archived from the original on 2 October 2012. Retrieved 8 October 2012.
- ^ "The Wood and Canvas Canoe". Wooden Canoe Heritage Association. Archived from the original on 13 December 2013. Retrieved 26 October 2012.
- ^ "Canoe / kayak sprint equipment and history". olympic.org. Retrieved 29 September 2012.
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- ^ ISBN 0-394-71153-X.
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- ^ 38th Annual Run of the Charles (PDF). Charles River Watershed Association. 2020. p. 5. Archived from the original (PDF) on 3 October 2020. Retrieved 14 September 2020.
- ^ a b "How to Choose a Canoe: A Primer on Modern Canoe Design". GORP. Archived from the original on 18 October 2012. Retrieved 7 October 2012.
- ^ a b "The Hull Truth". Mad River Canoe. Retrieved 7 October 2012.
- ^ a b "Royalex (RX)". Archived from the original on 25 February 2011. Retrieved 20 November 2010.
- ISBN 1906095124
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- ^ "Buying The Right Canoe". Retrieved 6 October 2012.
- ^ "The Canoe". McGill University. Retrieved 16 October 2012.
- ^ "The Pearl: Themes, Motifs, & Symbols". Spark Notes. Retrieved 16 October 2012.
- ^ "Story: Canoe traditions". The Encyclopedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 16 October 2012.
- ^ "Canoe sprint". International Canoe Federation. Archived from the original on 8 October 2010. Retrieved 22 November 2012.
- ^ "Canoe Sprint Overview". International Canoe Federation. Archived from the original on 15 August 2012. Retrieved 22 November 2012.
- ^ "About Canoe Slalom". International Canoe Federation. Archived from the original on 7 November 2012. Retrieved 22 November 2012.
- ^ "Rules for Canoe Slalom" (PDF). International Canoe Federation. Archived from the original (PDF) on 20 March 2012. Retrieved 22 November 2012.
- ^ "Wildwater Competition rules 2011" (PDF). International Canoe Federation. Retrieved 22 November 2012.[permanent dead link]
- ^ "La Classique Internationale de Canots de la Mauricie: Rules and Regulations". Archived from the original on 19 January 2013. Retrieved 30 November 2012.
- ^ "Texas Water Safari: History". Retrieved 30 November 2012.
- ^ Parks Canada Agency, Government of Canada (8 January 2018). "Canoe launch – Pukaskwa National Park". www.pc.gc.ca. Retrieved 3 September 2019.
- ^ Gonzalez, Michael. "New kayak, canoe launch on Little Calumet River adds to recreation opportunities". chicagotribune.com. Retrieved 3 September 2019.
- ^ "Friends of Shiawassee say canoe launch is now open". The Argus-Press. Retrieved 3 September 2019.
- ^ "Paddle – Royal Botanical Gardens". Royal Botanical Gardens. Retrieved 3 September 2019.
- ^ Schlote, Warren (19 June 2019). "Wiikwemkoong outdoor education class builds, launches 30 ft. canoe". Manitoulin Expositor. Archived from the original on 3 September 2019. Retrieved 3 September 2019.
External links
- Media related to Canoes at Wikimedia Commons