Gospel

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Fragment of a flyleaf with the title of the Gospel of Matthew, ευαγγελιον κ̣ατ̣α μαθ᾽θαιον (Euangelion kata Maththaion). From Papyrus 4 (c. AD 200), it is the earliest manuscript title for Matthew and one of the earliest manuscript titles for any gospel.

Gospel (

Christian authors.[3][4]

The canonical gospels are the four which appear in the New Testament of the Bible. They were probably written between AD 66 and 110.[5][6][7] All four were anonymous (with the modern names of the "Four Evangelists" added in the 2nd century), almost certainly none were by eyewitnesses, and all are the end-products of long oral and written transmission.[8] According to the majority of scholars, Mark was the first to be written, using a variety of sources,[9][10] followed by Matthew and Luke, which both independently used Mark for their narrative of Jesus's career, supplementing it with a collection of sayings called "the Q source", and additional material unique to each.[11] There is near-consensus that John had its origins as the hypothetical Signs Gospel thought to have been circulated within a Johannine community.[12]

Many non-canonical gospels were also written, all later than the four canonical gospels, and like them advocating the particular theological views of their various authors.[13][14] Important examples include the gospels of Thomas, Peter, Judas, and Mary; infancy gospels such as that of James (the first to introduce the perpetual virginity of Mary); and gospel harmonies such as the Diatessaron.

Etymology

Gospel is the

Latinized as evangelium in the Vulgate, and translated into Latin as bona annuntiatio. In Old English, it was translated as gōdspel (gōd "good" + spel "news"). The Old English term was retained as gospel in Middle English Bible translations and hence remains in use also in Modern English
.

Canonical gospels: Matthew, Mark, Luke and John

Canonical Gospels
The first page of the Gospel of Mark in Armenian, by Sargis Pitsak, 14th century
Information
ReligionChristianity
LanguageKoine Greek
PeriodApostolic Age
Chapters89
Verses3,779

Contents

The four canonical gospels share the same basic outline of the life of Jesus: he begins his public ministry in conjunction with that of John the Baptist, calls disciples, teaches and heals and confronts the Pharisees, dies on the cross and is raised from the dead.[16] Each has its own distinctive understanding of him and his divine role[14][17] and scholars recognize that the differences of detail between the gospels are irreconcilable, and any attempt to harmonize them would only disrupt their distinct theological messages.[18]

Matthew, Mark and Luke are termed the

King David or Adam;[21][22] it originally ended at Mark 16:8 and had no post-resurrection appearances, although Mark 16:7, in which the young man discovered in the tomb instructs the women to tell "the disciples and Peter" that Jesus will see them again in Galilee, hints that the author knew of the tradition.[23]

The authors of Matthew and Luke added infancy and resurrection narratives to the story they found in Mark, although the two differ markedly.[24] Each also makes subtle theological changes to Mark: the Markan miracle stories, for example, confirm Jesus' status as an emissary of God (which was Mark's understanding of the Messiah), but in Matthew they demonstrate his divinity,[25] and the "young man" who appears at Jesus' tomb in Mark becomes a radiant angel in Matthew.[26][27] Luke, while following Mark's plot more faithfully than Matthew, has expanded on the source, corrected Mark's grammar and syntax, and eliminated some passages entirely, notably most of chapters 6 and 7.[28]

John, the most overtly theological, is the first to make Christological judgements outside the context of the narrative of Jesus's life.[14] He presents a significantly different picture of Jesus's career,[19] omitting any mention of his ancestry, birth and childhood, his baptism, temptation and transfiguration;[19] his chronology and arrangement of incidents is also distinctly different, clearly describing the passage of three years in Jesus's ministry in contrast to the single year of the synoptics, placing the cleansing of the Temple at the beginning rather than at the end, and the Last Supper on the day before Passover instead of being a Passover meal.[29] The Gospel of John is the only gospel to call Jesus God, and in contrast to Mark, where Jesus hides his identity as messiah, in John he openly proclaims it.[30]

Composition

The Synoptic sources: the Gospel of Mark (the triple tradition), Q (the double tradition), and material unique to Matthew (the M source), Luke (the L source), and Mark[31]

Like the rest of the New Testament, the four gospels were written in Greek.[32] The Gospel of Mark probably dates from c. AD 66–70,[5] Matthew and Luke around AD 85–90,[6] and John AD 90–110.[7] Despite the traditional ascriptions, all four are anonymous and most scholars agree that none were written by eyewitnesses.[8] A few conservative scholars defend the traditional ascriptions or attributions, but for a variety of reasons the majority of scholars have abandoned this view or hold it only tenuously.[33]

In the immediate aftermath of Jesus' death his followers expected him to return at any moment, certainly within their own lifetimes, and in consequence there was little motivation to write anything down for future generations, but as eyewitnesses began to die, and as the missionary needs of the church grew, there was an increasing demand and need for written versions of the founder's life and teachings.[34] The stages of this process can be summarised as follows:[35]

  • Oral traditions – stories and sayings passed on largely as separate self-contained units, not in any order;
  • Written collections of miracle stories, parables, sayings, etc., with oral tradition continuing alongside these;
  • Written proto-gospels preceding and serving as sources for the gospels – the dedicatory preface of Luke, for example, testifies to the existence of previous accounts of the life of Jesus.[36]
  • Gospels formed by combining proto-gospels, written collections and still-current oral tradition.

Mark is generally agreed to be the first gospel;

Johannine community (which produced John and the three epistles associated with the name) and later expanded with a Passion narrative as well as a series of discourses.[12][note 2]

All four also use the Jewish scriptures, by quoting or referencing passages, interpreting texts, or alluding to or echoing biblical themes.

Parousia (second coming) is made up almost entirely of quotations from scripture.[41] Matthew is full of quotations and allusions,[42] and although John uses scripture in a far less explicit manner, its influence is still pervasive.[43] Their source was the Greek version of the scriptures, called the Septuagint; they do not seem familiar with the original Hebrew.[44]

Genre and historical reliability

The consensus among modern scholars is that the gospels are a subset of the ancient genre of bios, or ancient biography.[45] Ancient biographies were concerned with providing examples for readers to emulate while preserving and promoting the subject's reputation and memory; the gospels were never simply biographical, they were propaganda and kerygma (preaching).[46] As such, they present the Christian message of the second half of the first century AD,[47] and as Luke's attempt to link the birth of Jesus to the census of Quirinius demonstrates, there is no guarantee that the gospels are historically accurate.[48]

The majority view among critical scholars is that the authors of Matthew and Luke have based their narratives on Mark's gospel, editing him to suit their own ends, and the contradictions and discrepancies between these three and John make it impossible to accept both traditions as equally reliable with regard to the historical Jesus.[49] In addition, the gospels we read today have been edited and corrupted over time, leading Origen to complain in the 3rd century that "the differences among manuscripts have become great, ... [because copyists] either neglect to check over what they have transcribed, or, in the process of checking, they make additions or deletions as they please".[50] Most of these are insignificant, but many are significant,[51] an example being Matthew 1:18, altered to imply the pre-existence of Jesus.[52] For these reasons modern scholars are cautious of relying on the gospels uncritically, but nevertheless, they do provide a good idea of the public career of Jesus, and critical study can attempt to distinguish the original ideas of Jesus from those of the later authors.[3][4]

Scholars usually agree that John is not without historical value: certain of its sayings are as old or older than their synoptic counterparts, and its representation of the

Beloved Disciple as his source should be taken as a guarantee of his reliability.[54]

Textual history and canonisation

The oldest gospel text known is

Irenaeus of Lyons went further, stating that there must be four gospels and only four because there were four corners of the Earth and thus the Church should have four pillars.[1][57] He referred to the four collectively as the "fourfold gospel" (euangelion tetramorphon).[58]

Non-canonical (apocryphal) gospels

The Gospel of Thomas

The many apocryphal gospels arose from the 1st century onward, frequently under assumed names to enhance their credibility and authority, and often from within branches of Christianity that were eventually branded heretical.[59] They can be broadly organised into the following categories:[60]

The apocryphal gospels can also be seen in terms of the communities which produced them:

The major apocryphal gospels (after Bart Ehrman, "Lost Christianities" – comments on content are by Ehrman unless otherwise noted) [62]
Title Probable date Content
Epistle of the Apostles
Mid 2nd c. Anti-gnostic dialogue between Jesus and the disciples after the resurrection, emphasising the reality of the flesh and of Jesus' fleshly resurrection
Gospel According to the Hebrews
Early 2nd c. Events in the life of Jesus; Jewish-Christian, with possible gnostic overtones
Gospel of the Ebionites Early 2nd c. Jewish-Christian, embodying anti-sacrificial concerns
Gospel of the Egyptians Early 2nd c. "Salome" figures prominently; Jewish-Christian stressing asceticism
Gospel of Mary 2nd c. Dialogue of Mary Magdalene with the apostles, and her vision of Jesus' secret teachings.

It was originally written in Greek and is often interpreted as a Gnostic text. It is typically not considered a gospel by scholars since it does not focus on the life of Jesus.[63]

Gospel of the Nazareans
Early 2nd c. Aramaic version of Matthew, possibly lacking the first two chapters; Jewish-Christian
Gospel of Nicodemus 5th c. Jesus' trial, crucifixion and descent into Hell
Gospel of Peter Early 2nd c. Fragmentary narrative of Jesus' trial, death and emergence from the tomb. It seems to be hostile toward Jews and includes
docetic elements.[64] It is a narrative gospel and is notable for asserting that Herod, not Pontius Pilate, ordered the crucifixion of Jesus. It had been lost but was rediscovered in the 19th century.[64]
Gospel of Philip 3rd c. Mystical reflections of the disciple Philip
Gospel of the Saviour Late 2nd c. Fragmentary account of Jesus' last hours
Coptic Gospel of Thomas
Early 2nd c. The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church says that the original may date from c. 150.
Gnostic terms, it lacks the characteristic features of Gnostic doctrine.[65] It includes two unique parables, the parable of the empty jar and the parable of the assassin.[68] It had been lost but was discovered, in a Coptic version dating from c. 350, at Nag Hammadi in 1945–46, and three papyri, dated to c. 200, which contain fragments of a Greek text similar to but not identical with that in the Coptic language, have also been found.[65]
Infancy Gospel of Thomas Early 2nd c. Miraculous deeds of Jesus between the ages of five and twelve
Gospel of Truth Mid 2nd c. Joys of Salvation
Papyrus Egerton 2 Early 2nd c. Fragmentary, four episodes from the life of Jesus
Diatessaron Late 2nd c. Gospel harmony (and the first such gospel harmony) composed by Tatian; may have been intended to replace the separate gospels as an authoritative text. It was accepted for liturgical purposes for as much as two centuries in Syria, but was eventually suppressed.[69][70]
Protoevangelium of James
Mid 2nd c. Birth and early life of Mary, and birth of Jesus
Gospel of Marcion Mid 2nd c. Marcion of Sinope, c. 150, had a much shorter version of the gospel of Luke, differing substantially from what has now become the standard text of the gospel and far less oriented towards the Jewish scriptures. Marcion's critics said that he had edited out the portions of Luke he did not like, though Marcion argued that his was the more genuinely original text. He is said to have rejected all other gospels, including those of Matthew, Mark and especially John, which he alleged had been forged by Irenaeus.
Secret Gospel of Mark Uncertain Allegedly a longer version of Mark written for an elect audience
Gospel of Judas Late 2nd c. Purports to tell the story of the gospel from the perspective of Judas, the disciple who is usually said to have betrayed Jesus. It paints an unusual picture of the relationship between Jesus and Judas, in that it appears to interpret Judas's act not as betrayal, but rather as an act of obedience to the instructions of Jesus. The text was recovered from a cave in Egypt by a thief and thereafter sold on the black market until it was finally discovered by a collector who, with the help of academics from Yale and Princeton, was able to verify its authenticity. The document itself does not claim to have been authored by Judas (it is, rather, a gospel about Judas), and is known to date to at least 180 AD.[71]
Gospel of Barnabas 14th–16th c. Contradicts the ministry of Jesus in canonical New Testament and strongly denies Pauline doctrine, but has clear parallels with Islam, mentioning Muhammad as Messenger of God. Jesus identifies himself as a prophet, not the son of God.[72]

See also

Notes

  1. Synoptic problem
    .
  2. ^ The debate over the composition of John is too complex to be treated adequately in a single paragraph; for a more nuanced view see Aune (1987), "Gospel of John".[39]

References

Citations

  1. ^ a b Cross & Livingstone 2005, p. 697.
  2. ^ Alexander 2006, p. 16.
  3. ^ a b Reddish 2011, pp. 21–22.
  4. ^ a b Sanders 1995, pp. 4–5.
  5. ^ a b Perkins 1998, p. 241.
  6. ^ a b Reddish 2011, pp. 108, 144.
  7. ^ a b Lincoln 2005, p. 18.
  8. ^ a b Reddish 2011, pp. 13, 42.
  9. ^ a b Goodacre 2001, p. 56.
  10. ^ a b Boring 2006, pp. 13–14.
  11. ^ a b Levine 2009, p. 6.
  12. ^ a b Burge 2014, p. 309.
  13. ^ Petersen 2010, p. 51.
  14. ^ a b c Culpepper 1999, p. 66.
  15. ^ Woodhead 2004, p. 4.
  16. ^ Thompson 2006, p. 183.
  17. ^ Ehrman, Bart (April 13, 2014). "Jesus as God in the Synoptics (For members)". Ehrman Blog. Archived from the original on 2015-03-11.
  18. ^ Scholz 2009, p. 192.
  19. ^ a b c Burkett 2002, p. 217.
  20. ^ Boring 2006, pp. 1–3.
  21. ^ Burkett 2002, p. 158.
  22. ^ Parker 1997, p. 125.
  23. ^ Telford 1999, p. 148-149.
  24. ^ Eve 2021, p. 29.
  25. ^ Aune 1987, p. 59.
  26. ^ Beaton 2005, pp. 117, 123.
  27. ^ Morris 1986, p. 114.
  28. ^ Johnson 2010a, p. 48.
  29. ^ Anderson 2011, p. 52.
  30. ^ Burkett 2002, p. 214.
  31. ^ Honoré 1986, pp. 95–147.
  32. ^ Porter 2006, p. 185.
  33. ^ Lindars, Edwards & Court 2000, p. 41.
  34. ^ Reddish 2011, p. 17.
  35. ^ Burkett 2002, pp. 124–125.
  36. ^ Martens 2004, p. 100.
  37. ^ Goodacre 2001, p. 1.
  38. ^ Perkins 2012, p. [page needed].
  39. ^ Aune 1987, pp. 243–245.
  40. ^ Allen 2013, pp. 43–44.
  41. ^ Edwards 2002, p. 403.
  42. ^ Beaton 2005, p. 122.
  43. ^ Lieu 2005, p. 175.
  44. ^ Allen 2013, p. 45.
  45. ^ Lincoln 2004, p. 133.
  46. ^ Dunn 2005, p. 174.
  47. ^ Keith & Le Donne 2012, p. [page needed].
  48. ^ Reddish 2011, p. 22.
  49. ^ Tuckett 2000, p. 523.
  50. ^ Ehrman 2005a, pp. 7, 52.
  51. ^ Ehrman 2005a, p. 69.
  52. ^ Ehrman 1996, pp. 75–76.
  53. ^ Theissen & Merz 1998, pp. 36–37.
  54. ^ Lincoln 2005, p. 26.
  55. ^ Fant & Reddish 2008, p. 415.
  56. ^ Ehrman 2005a, p. 34: "Marcion included a Gospel in his canon, a form of what is now the Gospel of Luke"
  57. ^ Ehrman 2005a, p. 35.
  58. ^ Watson 2016, p. 15.
  59. ^ Aune 2003, pp. 199–200.
  60. ^ Ehrman & Plese 2011, p. passim.
  61. ^ Pagels 1989, p. xx.
  62. ^ Ehrman 2005b, pp. xi–xii.
  63. ^ Bernhard 2006, p. 2.
  64. ^ a b Cross & Livingstone 2005, "Gospel of St. Peter".
  65. ^ a b c d Cross & Livingstone 2005, "Gospel of Thomas".
  66. ^ Casey 2010, p. [page needed].
  67. ^ Meier 1991, p. [page needed].
  68. ^ Funk, Hoover & Jesus Seminar 1993, "The Gospel of Thomas".
  69. ^ Metzger 2003, p. 117.
  70. ^ Gamble 1985, pp. 30–35.
  71. ^ Ehrman 2006, p. passim.
  72. ^ Wiegers 1995.

Bibliography

External links