Canonization of Islamic scripture
Part of a series on |
Islam |
---|
Canonized Islamic scripture are texts which
Other
Orthodox Muslims [clarification needed] (which includes almost all Muslims) also consider Hadith (the record of the words, actions, and the silent approval of Muhammad)[2] to be divine revelation. For such, the hadiths are extremely important because they give detailed direction to Muslims on far more issues than does the Quran so that most of the rules of Sharia (Islamic law) are derived from hadith, rather than the Quran.[3] Not only were the hadith collections compiled centuries after the Quran, but their canonization also came much later. The two "most famous" collections of hadith -- sahihayn of
Quran
Quran |
---|
Uthman ibn Affan and the canonization of the Quran
The
The Qur'anic canon is the form of the Quran as recited and written in which it is religiously binding for the Muslim community. This canonical corpus is closed and fixed in the sense that nothing in the Quran can be changed or modified.[8]
According to the traditional Islamic narrative, by the time of Uthman's caliphate, there was a perceived need for clarification of Qur'an reading. The holy book had often been spread to others orally by Muslims who had memorized the Quran in its entirety (huffaz), but now "sharp divergence" had appeared in recitation of the book among Muslims.[7] It is believed the general Hudhayfah ibn al-Yaman reported this problem to the caliph and asked him to establish a unified text. According to the history of al-Tabari, during the expedition to conquer Armenia and Azerbaijan there were 10,000 Kufan Muslim warriors, 6,000 in Azerbaijan and 4,000 at Rayy,[9] and a large number of these soldiers disagreed about the correct way of reciting the Quran.[10]
What was more, many of the huffaz were dying. 70 had been killed in the
Uthman obtained written "sheets" or parts of the Quran from Ḥafṣa, one of the widows of Muhammad. Other parts collected from Companions had been "written down on parchment, stone, palm leaves and the shoulder blades of camels".[13] He appointed a commission consisting of a scribe of Muhammad, Zayd ibn Thabit and three prominent Meccans, and instructed them to copy the sheets into several volumes based on the dialect of the Quraysh — the tribe of Muhammad and the main tribe of Mecca.[14]
Uthman's reaction in 653 is recorded in the following hadith from Sahih al-Bukhari, 6:61:510:
"So Uthman sent a message to Hafsa saying, "Send us the manuscripts of the Quran so that we may compile the Quranic materials in perfect copies and return the manuscripts to you." Hafsa sent it to Uthman. Uthman then ordered
Said bin Al-Asand Abdur Rahman bin Harith bin Hisham to rewrite the manuscripts in perfect copies. Uthman said to the three Quraishi men, "In case you disagree with Zaid bin Thabit on any point in the Quran, then write it in the dialect of Quraish, the Quran was revealed in their tongue." They did so, and when they had written many copies, 'Uthman returned the original manuscripts to Hafsa. 'Uthman sent to every Muslim province one copy of what they had copied and ordered that all the other Quranic materials, whether written in fragmentary manuscripts or whole copies, be burnt. Zayd bin Thabit added, "A Verse from Surat Ahzab was missed by me when we copied the Quran and I used to hear Allah's Apostle reciting it. So we searched for it and found it with Khuzaima bin Thabit Al-Ansari. [That verse was]: 'Among the Believers are men who have been true in their covenant with Allah.'"
When the task was finished Uthman kept one copy in Medina and sent others to
This is one of the most contested issues and an area where many non-Muslim and Muslim scholars often clash.[8]
Variants of the Quran
According to Islamic tradition the Quran was revealed to Muhammad in seven
This does not mean that only one "reading" of the Quran is canonized. The single harf canonized by Uthman did not include vowels or diacritical marks for some consonants, which allowed for variant readings. Seven readings—known as Qira'at—were noted by scholar Abu Bakr Ibn Mujāhid and canonized in the 8th century CE.[18] Later scholars, such as Ibn al-Jazari, added three other reciters (Abu Ja’far from Madinah, Ya’qub from Basrah, and Khalaf from Kufa) to form the canonical list of ten Qira'at.[19][20]
Of the ten, the one qira'at has become so popular that (according to one source) "for all practical purposes", it is the one Quranic version in "general use" in the Muslim world today
Shia belief
Part of a series on |
Ali |
---|
Ali, the fourth Rashidun caliph (r. 656–661) and the first Shia Imam, is widely believed to have compiled his own transcript of the Quran.[25][26] In particular, there are reports that Ali and some other companions of Muhammad collected the verses of the Quran during the lifetime of the prophet,[27] while other reports emphasize that Ali prepared his codex immediately after the death of Muhammad in 632 CE.[28][29] This latter group of reports may have been fabricated to imply consensus about the caliphate of Abu Bakr, that is, the preoccupation of Ali with his codex in these reports is intended to justify his widely-rumored absence in the Saqifa meeting where Abu Bakr was elected caliph after Muhammad died.[28]
In his codex, Ali may have arranged the verses in the order by which they were revealed to Muhammad,[30][31] though this claim has been challenged.[31] The codex of Ali may have also included additional information on the abrogated verses of the Quran.[31] By some Shia accounts, Ali offered his codex for official use after the death of Muhammad but was turned down by some of the companions.[31] Alternatively, Ali may have offered his codex for official use to Uthman during his caliphate but the caliph rejected it in favor of other variants available to him.[32] As for its fate, it is believed in Twelver Shia that the codex of Ali has been handed down from every Imam to his successor, as part of the esoteric knowledge available to the Twelve Imams.[33][34][35] In Twelver belief, the codex is now in the possession of their last Imam, Muhammad al-Mahdi,[36] who is hidden from the public by divine will since 874, until his reappearance at the end of time to eradicate injustice and evil.[37]
Differences with the Uthmanid codex
Some Sunni reports allege that the official Uthmanid codex of the Quran is incomplete,
Alternatively, the recension of Ali may have matched the Uthmanic codex, save for the ordering of its content,[36] but it was rejected for political reasons as it also included the partisan commentary of Ali,[49] who is often counted among the foremost exegetes of the Quran.[50] The implication that the Uthmanid codex is faithful has been the prevalent Shia view ever since the Buyids period.[51] Some Shia scholars have thus questioned the authenticity of those traditions that allege textual differences with the Uthmanid codex, tracing them to the Ghulat,[52][53] or to early Sunni traditions,[53] while Sunnis have in turn blamed Shias for originating the falsification claims and accused them of espousing such views, often indiscriminately.[53][54] Other Shia scholars have reinterpreted the traditions that may suggest the alteration of the Quran.[55] For instance, a tradition ascribed to Ali suggests that a fourth of the Quran is about the House of Muhammad, or the Ahl al-Bayt, while another fourth is about their enemies. The Uthmanic codex certainly does not meet this description but the inconsistency can be explained by another Shia tradition, which states that the verses of the Quran about the virtuous are primarily directed at the Ahl al-Bayt, while those verses about the evildoers are directed first at their enemies.[56]
Hadith
Part of a series on |
Hadith |
---|
|
Second only to the Quran in authority as a source for religious law and moral guidance in Islam,
Because there were a large number of false hadith, a great deal of effort was expended by scholars in a field known as
Because the
Not only were the hadith collections compiled centuries after the Quran, but their canonization also came much later. Scholar Jonathan A. C. Brown has studied the process of canonization of the two "most famous" collections of hadith -- sahihayn of al-Bukhari and Muslim—which went from "controversial to indispensable" over the centuries.[4]
From their very creation, they were subject to withering criticism and rejection: Muslim was forced to argue that his book was merely meant as a 'private collection' (94) and al-Bukhari was accused of plagiarism (95). The 4th/10th and 5th/11th centuries were no kinder, for while the
Hanbalis were openly critical. Not until the mid-5th/11th century did these schools come to a tacit agreement on the status of 'the Sahihayn canon as a measure of authenticity in polemics and exposition of their schools' doctrines' (222); it would be three more centuries before the Hanafis would join them in this assessment.[Note 2][62]
Brown writes that the books achieved iconic status in the Sunni Muslim community such that public readings of them were made in Cairo in 790 AH/1388 CE to ward off plague and the Moroccan statesman Mawlay Isma'il (d.1727) "dubbed his special troops the 'slaves of al-Bukhari'".[63]
See also
Notes
References
Citations
- ^ Concise Encyclopedia of Islam, Cyril Glasse, Holy Books
- ^ a b "Hadith". Encyclopaedia Britannica. Retrieved 31 July 2020.
- ^ a b Forte, David F. (1978). "Islamic Law; the impact of Joseph Schacht" (PDF). Loyola of Los Angeles International and Comparative Law Review. 1: 2. Retrieved 19 April 2018.
- ^ a b "The Canonization of al-Bukhārī and Muslim". Brill. Retrieved 31 July 2020.
- ^ J.A.C. Brown, Misquoting Muhammad, 2014: p.8
- ^ Shoemaker, Thomas. "The Development of the Canonical Qur'an". mesacc.edu/. Archived from the original on 4 March 2021. Retrieved 30 July 2020.
- ^ a b Cook, The Koran, 2000: p.119
- ^ ISBN 0-415-32639-7.
- ISBN 0-7914-0154-5.
- ISBN 0-7914-0154-5.
- ^ EKINCI, EKREM BUĞRA (2 June 2017). "History of the compilation of Quran". Daily Sabah. Retrieved 30 July 2020.
- ISBN 0-88706-876-6.
- ^ CALAMUR, KRISHNADEV (22 July 2015). "University In U.K. Finds Muhammad-Era Quran Pages Among Its Possessions". NPR. Retrieved 30 July 2020.
- ^ a b Pearson, J. D.; Paret, R.; Welch, A. T. (2012). "al-Kur'an". In Bearman, P.; Bianquis, Th.; Bosworth, C.E.; van Donzel, E.; Heinrichs, W.P. (eds.). Encyclopedia of Islam (Second ed.). Brill.
- ^ Abu Ameenah Bilal Philips, Tafseer Soorah Al-Hujuraat, 1990, Tawheed Publications, Riyadh, pp. 29–30.
- ^ a b Abu Ameenah Bilal Philips, Tafseer Soorah Al-Hujuraat, 1990, Tawheed Publications, Riyadh, p. 28-29
- ^ "Versions Of The Qur'an?". Islamic Awareness. 15 January 2002. Retrieved 16 July 2020.
- ISBN 9789004240810
- ^ Ajaja, Abdurrazzak. "القراءات : The readings".
- ^ Khan, Nazir; Khatib, Ammar. "The Origins of the Variant Readings of the Qur'an". Yaqeen Institute. Retrieved 30 March 2020.
- ^ Böwering, "Recent Research on the Construction of the Quran", 2008: p.74
- ^ QA. Welch, Kuran, EI2 5, 409
- ^ Böwering, "Recent Research on the Construction of the Quran", 2008: p.84
- ISBN 9780470673492. Retrieved 11 April 2020.
- ^ Lalani 2006, pp. 30–31.
- ^ Esack 2005, p. 89.
- ^ Modarressi 1993, p. 16–17.
- ^ a b Modarressi 1993, pp. 17–18.
- ^ Amir-Moezzi 2009, p. 14.
- ^ Lalani 2006, p. 30.
- ^ a b c d Modarressi 2003, p. 2.
- ^ Modarressi 1993, p. 14.
- ^ Momen 1985, p. 150.
- ^ a b c Amir-Moezzi 2009, p. 24.
- ^ Amir-Moezzi 2009, pp. 29–30.
- ^ a b Amir-Moezzi 1994, p. 89.
- ^ Amir-Moezzi 1998.
- ^ a b Modarressi 1993, pp. 22, 25–26.
- ^ Amir-Moezzi 2009, p. 16.
- ^ Modarressi 1993, p. 23.
- ^ Bar-Asher.
- ^ Momen 1985, pp. 172–173.
- ^ Kohlberg 2009, pp. 31–32.
- ^ Kohlberg 2009, pp. 32–33.
- ^ Modarressi 1993, p. 32.
- ^ Amir-Moezzi 2009, p. 26.
- ^ Esack 2005, p. 90.
- ^ Amir-Moezzi 1994, pp. 88–89, 204n455.
- ^ Amir-Moezzi 2009, p. 25.
- ^ Lalani 2006, p. 29.
- ^ Momen 1985, pp. 77, 81.
- ^ Amir-Moezzi 2009, p. 28.
- ^ a b c Modarressi 1993, pp. 36–39.
- ^ Momen 1985, p. 74.
- ^ Ayoub 1988, p. 191.
- ^ Modarressi 1993, p. 29.
- ^ An-Nawawi, Riyadh As-Salihin, 1975: p.203
- ^ An-Nawawi, Riyadh As-Salihin, 1975: p.168
- ^ An-Nawawi, Riyadh As-Salihin, 1975: p.229
- ^ "Sahih Muslim (7 Vol. Set)". Dar-us-Salam Islamic Bookstore (online bookshop catalogue entry). Archived from the original on 1 June 2009. Retrieved 5 September 2015.
- ^ Momen, Moojan, Introduction to Shi'i Islam, Yale University Press, 1985, p.174.
- JSTOR 25704011. Retrieved 31 July 2020.
- JSTOR 25704011. Retrieved 31 July 2020.
Sources
- Böwering, Gerhard (2007). "Recent Research on the Construction of the Qur'an". In Reynolds, Gabriel (ed.). The Qur'an in its Historical Context. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-10945-6.
- Ahmad ibn Muhammad al-Sayyari (2009). Kohlberg, Etan; Amir-Moezzi, Mohammad Ali (eds.). "Revelation and Falsification: The Kitab al-qira'at of Ahmad b. Muhammad al-Sayyari: Critical Edition with an Introduction and Notes by Etan Kohlberg and Mohammad Ali Amir-Moezzi". Texts and Studies on the Qurʼān. 4. BRILL: vii. ISSN 1567-2808.
- Muhyi ad-Din Abu Zakariyya Yahya bin Sharaf an-Nawawi (1975). Riyadh as-Salihin [Gardens of the Righteous]. Mauhammad Zafulla Khan, translator. New York: Olive Branch Press. Retrieved 18 May 2018.
- Lalani, Arzina R. (2006). "'Ali ibn Abi Talib". In Leaman, Oliver (ed.). The Qur'an: An encyclopedia. Routledge. pp. 28–32. ISBN 9780415326391.
- Amir-Moezzi, Mohammad Ali (2009). "Information, Doubts and Contradictions in Islamic Sources". In Kohlberg, Etan; Amir-Moezzi, Mohammad Ali (eds.). Revelation and Falsification. Brill. pp. 12–23. ISBN 9789004167827.
- ISBN 9780853982005.
- Kohlberg, Etan (2009). "Life and Works of al-Sayyārī". In Kohlberg, Etan; Amir-Moezzi, Mohammad Ali (eds.). Revelation and Falsification. Brill. pp. 30–37. ISBN 9789004167827.
- ISBN 0791421228.
- ISBN 0198265468.
- ISBN 9781851683314.
- Bar-Asher, Meir M. "Shīʿism and the Qurʾān". In McAuliffe, Jane Dammen (ed.). Encyclopaedia of the Qurʾān. Brill Reference Online.
- Amir-Moezzi, Mohammad Ali (1998). "Eschatology iii. Imami Shiʿism". Encyclopaedia Iranica. Vol. VIII/6. pp. 575–581.
- Modarressi, Hossein (1993). "Early Debates on the Integrity of the Qur'ān: A Brief Survey". Studia Islamica. 77. JSTOR: 5–39. JSTOR 1595789.)
{{cite journal}}
: CS1 maint: date and year (link - ISBN 9781851683543.