Capital punishment in China
This article needs additional citations for verification. (January 2021) |
China portal |
Capital punishment is a legal penalty in China. It is applicable to offenses ranging from murder to drug trafficking.[1] Executions are carried out by lethal injection or by shooting.[2][3][4] A survey conducted by The New York Times in 2014 found the death penalty retained widespread support in Chinese society.[5]
Capital punishment is used in most East Asian countries and territories, including Japan, North Korea, Malaysia, Thailand, Indonesia, Vietnam, Singapore, and Taiwan.[6][7][8][9] According to Amnesty International, China executes more people than all other countries combined.[10] The exact numbers of executions and death sentences are not publicly available, being considered a state secret by China.[11] According to the U.S.-based Dui Hua Foundation, the estimated number of executions has declined steadily in the twenty-first century, from 12,000 each year to 2,400.[12] However, in 2022 the World Coalition Against the Death Penalty announced that since 2007 at least 8,000 people per year were executed in China.[13] Since 2006, the Chinese government has taken effective measures to limit use of the death penalty,[14] proclaiming that it is doing this with the aim of completely abolishing it.[15]
Capital punishment in China should not be confused with death sentence with reprieve, which is a form of lenient sentencing that is handed down by Chinese courts as frequently as, or more often than, actual death sentences.[16] Death sentence with reprieve is used to emphasize the seriousness of the crime and the mercy of the court, and is sometimes inaccurately added to the number of actual death sentences.[17]
Historical background
Capital punishment was one of the classical
During China's early dynasties, capital punishment and amputation were predominant among the five punishments. Later, amputation became less common, but capital punishment and corporal punishment remained. There was wide variability in the number of types of capital offenses over time. Under the Punishments of Lu (Lu Xing), written sometime in the Warring States period (475–221 BCE), there were 200 capital offenses.[21] The Tang Code (653 CE) listed 233 capital offenses, and the Song dynasty (960–1279) retained these and added sixty more over time. Under the Yuan dynasty, the "number of separate capital provisions" precipitously dropped, reaching a low of 125 crimes. The number of capital offenses spiked again under the Ming dynasty (1368–1644), with 282 capital offenses, and the Qing dynasty (1644–1911), with more than 800 capital offenses.[21]
Historically, poorer and lower-status Chinese were most often subject to capital punishment; however, officials and others of high-rank were put to death as a means of social control in times of war, internal disarray, or strife.[22] For example, King Wu of the Western Zhou ordered officials who violated royal regulations, failed to carry out their duties, or "promulgated innovations" to be put to death; 39 military officials were executed following a peasant uprising during the Tang dynasty; the six gentlemen of the Hundred Days' Reform, who advocated social reform in the late Qing dynasty were executed.[23]
The first type of classical punishment was a
Rates of execution
By both confirmed and estimated data, the number of executions from capital punishment in China is far higher than any other country, while the number per capita is comparable to Vietnam and Singapore, and lower than several other countries, including Saudi Arabia, Iran and Iraq.[25][26][27][28] The number of executions has dropped steadily in the 2000s, and significantly since 2007, when the Supreme People's Court regained the power to review all death sentences; for instance, the Dui Hua Foundation estimates that China executed 12,000 people in 2002, 6,500 people in 2007, and roughly 2,400 in 2013 and 2014.[29][30][31][32] Given conservative and variable estimates of executions in China, executions in China account for more than 58% in 2009 and 65% in 2010 of those worldwide.[15]
The exact numbers of people executed in China is classified as a state secret; occasionally death penalty cases are posted publicly by the judiciary, as in certain high-profile cases. One such example was the execution of former
Because of the inaccessibility to official statistics of the number of executions that occur within the death penalty system, academic researchers must use data compiled by NGOs such as Amnesty International, which is the most cited source of reports regarding rates of execution statistics. In 2009, Amnesty International counted 1718 executions as having taken place during 2008 (which equates to 0.0001%, or 1 in 1,000,000 of the Chinese population[34]), based on all information available. Amnesty International believed that the total figure was likely to be much higher.[35] According to "The Death Penalty in China: Reforms and Its Future", "it also represents the most conservative estimate of death sentences and executions in China due to the following accounting rules: 1) when there is doubt of accuracy, figures were excluded; 2) where two conflicting reports existed, the lower figure was used; 3) when a combined figure of death sentences and prison sentences was given, only one death sentence was recorded; and 4) when a group was sentenced to death, only one sentence was entered."[15]
Billionaire
On 31st January 2024, China executed Zhang Bo and his girlfriend Ye Chengchen for throwing Zhang's two young children from a previous marriage out of a high rise apartment.[38]
Legal procedure
After a first trial conducted by an
When a case involving the death penalty is sent to the SPC for mandatory review, the case is delivered to one of the court's five divisions according to the geographic origin of the case or, in some cases, the type of crime involved.[40] The SPC's second criminal division is dedicated to handling review of some of the most sensitive cases.[40] Each case is then assigned to a panel of three judges, one of whom is designated as the principal case manager.[40] Since 2012, judges are also required to interview defendants before deciding whether or not to confirm a death sentence.[40] The judges write reports summarizing the case, discuss the case, and then report the decision to the division head, SPC vice president, and finally the SPC president.[40]
If the lower court death sentence is upheld, the execution is carried out shortly thereafter. As a result of its reforms, the PRC's government claims, the Supreme People's Court overturned about 15 percent of the death sentences handed down by high courts in the first half of 2008. In a brief report in May 2008,
The cases of Li Yan (2014) and Wu Ying (2012) are two examples in which the Supreme People's Court reversed a death sentence pronounced by lower courts.[41]
Chinese courts hand down the sentence of "death sentence with two years' probation" (Chinese: 死缓; pinyin: sǐ huǎn) as frequently as, or more often than,[39] they do actual death sentences. This unique sentence is used to emphasize the seriousness of the crime and the mercy of the court, and has a centuries-old history in Chinese jurisprudence.[42] It is almost always reduced to life or 10 to 15 years imprisonment if no new crime is intentionally committed during the two year probationary period.[42]
Article 49 in the Chinese criminal code explicitly forbids the death penalty for offenders who are under the age of 18 at the time of the crime.[43] The SPC also issued a policy in 2007 which required lower courts to arrange for the visitation of condemned criminals by relatives; forbade the practice by local authorities of parading prisoners on death row; and required that executions be publicly announced.[39]
However, capital punishment in China can be politically or socially influenced. In 2003, a local court sentenced the leader of a
Since 1980, the state's security apparatus has initiated various "strike hard" (Chinese: 严打; pinyin: Yándǎ) campaigns against specific types of crime. Critics have noted that the campaigns lead to the streamlining of capital cases, where cases are investigated, appeals heard, and sentences carried out at rates much more rapidly than normal. Since 2006,
The
The list of capital crimes includes counter-revolutionary crimes, such as organizing an "armed mass rebellion"; endangerment of public security, such as committing
Thirteen crimes were removed from the list of capital offenses in 2011, including smuggling of cultural relics, wildlife products, and precious metals.[47][48][49] This brought the total number of capital offenses down from 68 to 55,[50] though many of the crimes dropped from the list were rarely if ever punished with death penalty.[49] The Draft 9th Amendment to the PRC Criminal Law was passed on 29 August 2015, which removed a further nine crimes from the list of capital offenses.[51] The crimes that were removed were:[52][53][54][55]
- Smuggling weapons or ammunition
- Smuggling nuclear materials
- Smuggling counterfeit money
- Counterfeiting
- Investment fraud/fraudulent fundraising
- Organizing prostitution
- Forcing prostitution
- Obstructing military affairs
- Spreading rumors and undermining morale during wartime
Executions procedure
The execution protocol is defined on the criminal procedure law, under article 252:[56]
- Before a people's court executes a death sentence, it shall notify the people's procuratorate at the same level to send personnel to supervise the execution.
- Death sentences shall be executed by means of shooting or injection.
- Death sentences may be executed at the execution ground or in designated places of custody.
- The judicial personnel directing the execution shall verify the identity of the criminal offender, ask him if he has any last words or letters, and then deliver him to the executioner for the death sentence. If, before the execution, it is found that there may be an error, the execution shall be suspended and the matter shall be reported to the Supreme People's Court for decision.
- Execution of death sentences shall be announced to the public, but shall not be held in public.
- The attending court clerk shall, after the execution of a death sentence, make a written record thereon. The people's court that caused the death sentence to be executed shall submit a report on the execution to the Supreme People's Court.
- The people's court that caused the death sentence to be executed shall, after the execution, notify the family of the criminal offender.
In some areas of China, there is no specific execution ground. A scout team chooses a place in advance to serve as the execution ground. In such case, the execution ground normally will have three perimeters: the innermost 50 meters is the responsibility of the execution team; the 200 meter radius from the center is the responsibility of the People's Armed Police; and the 2 km alert line is the responsibility of the local police. The public is generally not allowed to view the execution.[citation needed]
The role of the executioner was fulfilled in the past by the People's Armed Police soldiers. In recent times, the People's Courts’ judicial police officers (Chinese: 法警; pinyin: fǎjǐng) assumed this role.[citation needed]
China commonly employs two methods of execution. Since 1949, the most common method has been execution by firing squad, which has been largely superseded by lethal injection, using the same three-drug cocktail pioneered by the United States, introduced in 1996. Execution vans are unique to China, however. Lethal injection is more commonly used for "economic crimes", such as corruption, while firing squads are used for more common crimes like murder. In 2010, Chinese authorities moved to have lethal injection become the dominant form of execution; in some provinces and municipalities, it is now the only legal form of capital punishment.[57] The Dui Hua foundation notes that it is impossible to ascertain whether these guidelines are closely followed, as the method of execution is rarely specified in published reports.[58]
Reform
In 1996, the government made lethal injection a legal method of execution. The Supreme People's Court distributed the execution kits, developed by the China Academy of Medical Science Pharmaceutical Institute, and the first experiments occurred in 1997.[60]
Since 2006, under global pressures, China has embarked on significant reforms on the death penalty system.
In addition to decreasing the number of capital offenses, in Article 3 of Amendment VIII, the article states that seniors aged 75 years old and older should only be sentenced to death when they have caused the death of another person by cruel and unusual means. Article 1 states that seniors aged 75 years old or older who have committed crimes may be given lighter sentences. For those seniors who have committed crimes of negligence, their sentences can be lighter or mitigated. In addition, Article 19 dictates that criminals less than 18 years old at the time of a crime who are sentenced to prison terms of less than five years do not have to report to jail in situations of army recruitment and employment.
In practice, China traditionally uses the
Key reforms since 2006
- Notice Improving Work on Open Trial for Second Instance Case with Death Sentences (7 December 2005)
- Provisions on Some Issues Concerning the Court Trial Procedures for the Second Instance of Cases Involving the Death Penalty (for Trial Implementation) (21 September 2006)
- Amendment to the Organic Law of the People's Court (31 October 2006)
- Provision of the SPC on Several Issues Concerning the Review of Death Penalty Cases (27 February 2007)
- Opinion on Strengthening Handling Cases in Strict Accordance with Law and Guaranteeing the Quality of Handling Death Penalty Cases (9 March 2007)
- Provisions Concerning Issues in Examination of Evidence in Handling Death Penalty Cases (13 June 2010)
- Regulation on Issues Concerning Exclusion of Illegal Evidence in Handling Criminal Cases (13 June 2010)[15]
Key changes since reforms in 2006
- Exercise of the death penalty in general – After changes, the reform officially stated the principle of killing fewer and cautiously.
- Death Penalty (immediate execution) cases review body – SPC reassumes power to review immediate execution cases.
- Decisions on a wrongful conviction/sentence – SPC can order a lower court to retry a case except in a few scenarios.
- Questioning of convicted person during review – In principle, SPC judges should question the convicted person.
- Open trial in second instance court – In cases that may result in immediate execution, there must be an open trial.
- Exclusion of illegal evidence – Evidence that is not acquired through legal means, like confessions obtained through torture must be excluded.
In March 2007, China's representative in the UN Human Rights council, Mr. LA Yifan stated that "the death penalty's scope of application was to be reviewed shortly, and it was expected that this scope would be reduced, with the final aim to abolish it."[15] During the same year, the Supreme People's Court assumed the power to review every death sentence handed down by a lower court. Since this reform, it has been rumored that the number of executions has at least halved.[63] In February 2011, capital punishment in China was abolished for 13 non-violent crimes and it was also banned for offenders over the age of 75.[63]
Support
This section needs to be updated. The reason given is: Any researches after 2008?.(March 2024) |
Capital punishment has widespread support in China, especially for violent crimes, and no group in government or civil society has vocally advocated for its abolition except some that are based in Europe.[42] Surveys conducted by the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences in 1995, for instance, found that 95% of the Chinese population supported the death penalty, and these results were mirrored in other studies.[64] A poll conducted in 2002, showed that 88% of the population are in favour of the death penalty.[65] In 2005, a survey of 2000 respondents showed that 82.1% supported the death penalty while 13.7% supported the abolishment of the death penalty.[15] Polling conducted by the Dui Hua Foundation in 2007 in Beijing, Hunan and Guangdong found a more moderate 58% in favor of the death penalty, and further found that a majority (63.8%) believed that the government should release execution statistics to the public.[58]
A survey conducted in 2008 by the
Criticism
International criticism
Because of the wide application of capital offenses in Chinese criminal law, substantial use of capital punishment, and the hidden numbers of the execution rate, the Chinese death penalty system has been criticized by many international organizations which make an appeal to ethics and human rights, without always being well informed about the historical and cultural conditions in China.[65] A foreign reporter stated, "China's enthusiasm for capital punishment has long been a target for international criticism of its human rights record." Most of the international criticism stems from the wide scope of capital offenses and the amnesty system.[15]
Amnesty International reports that until 2010 among 197 nations worldwide, 96 nations had completely abolished the death penalty, 9 had abolished the death penalty for ordinary crimes, and 34 were abolitionist in practice, meaning that they have not executed anyone for at least 10 years and have generally settled on the policy to not sentence any executions. The last wave of international death penalty abolition has been influenced by the process of democratization and has inspired constitutions that protect the right to live. China has ratified more than 200 international covenants in recent decades and has taken on international responsibilities like respecting the right to life and thus limiting the use of capital punishment. When a draft of the Amendment was published in 2010, a foreign reporter commented, "it is believed that the proposed amendment is one of several moves by the Chinese government to soften its image as the world's biggest executioner."[15]
According to an Amnesty International report, “available information indicates that thousands of people are executed and sentenced to death in China each year.”
International death penalty abolitionist norms and trends have shaped Chinese death penalty practices significantly in recent years. Through international interventions and policies, like the European Union-led campaign against the death penalty in China since the mid-2000s, there has been an increased exchange of anti-death penalty knowledge and ideologies, dissemination of original information, and legislation geared towards scaling down the wide application of the death penalty.[70]
Allegation made by Falun Gong
The Coalition to Investigate the Persecution of Falun Gong has accused Chinese hospitals of using the organs of executed prisoners for commercial transplantation.[71] Under Chinese law, condemned prisoners must give written consent to become organ donors, but Wang Guoqi, a Chinese dissident and former PLA physician, has claimed that because of this and other legal restrictions an international black market in organs and cadavers from China has developed.[72] In December 2005, China's deputy health minister Huang Jiefu admitted that the country harvested organs from executed prisoners.[71] In 2009, Chinese authorities acknowledged that two-thirds of organ transplants in the country could be traced back to executed prisoners and announced a crackdown on the practice.[73]
The Australian Refugee Review Tribunal and the Laogai Research Foundation, an NGO specialising in gathering information on human rights in Chinese prisons, investigated the claims made by Falun Gong by sending undercover investigators to Chinese hospitals, prisons, and military camps.[74] However, they were unable to find any evidence that organs were extracted against people's will, and concluded that:[74]
1) According to our investigation in China, the alleged concentration camp that locks up as many as 6,000 people does not exist in Sujiatun District; 2) over the past two decades, the Chinese government did harvest organs from death row prisoners, but neither in theory or in practice [is it possible] to conduct the operation to crop organs alive from as many as 4,500 people; 3) the report that "the CCP crops organs from the Falun Gong practitioners and exports them to Thailand and other countries" is totally unreliable.
— Harry Wu, RRT Research Response (CHN31249), Refugee Review Tribunal & Laogai Research Foundation
The investigators also tried to contact Falun Gong spokespeople and witnesses, but were either ignored or not provided with any evidence, causing the investigators to conclude that the witnesses "most probably had fabricated the story".[74]
Wrongful convictions
See also
- Death sentence with reprieve, an alternative of the capital punishment which potentially changes the penalty from death to life or limited term of imprisonment after 2 years of the conviction.
- Crime in China
- Law of China
- Capital punishment in Taiwan
- Capital punishment in Hong Kong
- Capital punishment in Macau
References
- .
- ^ "中华人民共和国刑事诉讼法 (the Criminal Procedure Law of the People's Republic of China)". www.gov.cn (in Simplified Chinese). 2012-03-17. Archived from the original on 2018-01-03.
死刑采用枪决或者注射等方法执行 (A death sentence shall be executed by such means as shooting or injection)
- ^ "中华人民共和国刑事诉讼法(英文版) [the Criminal Procedure Law of the People's Republic of China (English Version)]". 中国人大网 (National People's Congress of China). 2011-08-23. Archived from the original on 2018-01-03. Retrieved 2018-01-03.
A death sentence shall be executed by such means as shooting or injection.
- ^ "Cornell Center on the Death Penalty Worldwide". Cornell Law School. 2018-06-20. Archived from the original on 2019-01-17. Retrieved 2019-01-16.
- ^ Zhang, Lijia (2014-12-29). "China's Death-Penalty Debate". The New York Times. The New York Times. Archived from the original on 2016-04-14. Retrieved 2017-04-11.
A majority of Chinese people support capital punishment, often citing the traditional saying "to repay a tooth with a tooth and to pay back blood with blood."
- ^ "EXPLAINER-Japan death row executions: hangings secretive, backed by public". Reuters. 2018-07-06. Archived from the original on 2019-01-17. Retrieved 2019-01-16.
- ^ "EU condemns Taiwan's use of death penalty after man's execution for double murder". South China Morning Post. 2018-09-01. Archived from the original on 2019-01-16. Retrieved 2019-01-16.
- ^ "South Korea has 61 people currently on death row". HANKYOREH. 2018-10-16. Archived from the original on 2019-01-16. Retrieved 2019-01-16.
- ^ "Singapore executes six men over drug trafficking despite international pleas". ABC. 2018-10-28. Archived from the original on 2018-12-09. Retrieved 2019-01-16.
- ^ "Canadian's death sentence in China 'horrific', family says". BBC. 2019-01-15. Archived from the original on 2019-01-15. Retrieved 2019-01-15.
China is believed to execute more people annually than any other country, but is highly secretive about the number. Human rights group Amnesty International puts the figure in the thousands – more than the rest of the world's nations put together.
- ^ Hogg, Chris (2011-02-25). "China ends death penalty for 13 economic crimes". BBC. Archived from the original on 2015-01-18. Retrieved 2015-02-22.
- ^ Nikkei Asian Review. "Beijing calls for an international "fox" hunt". Nikkei Asian Review. Nikkei Inc. Archived from the original on 2015-03-10. Retrieved 2015-03-02.
- ^ "The Status Quo of China's Death Penalty and the Civil Society Abolitionist Movement". World Coalition Against the Death Penalty. 2022-02-22.
- . Retrieved 2023-01-23.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Zhou, Zhenjie. "The Death Penalty in China: Reforms and Its Future". 早稲田大学高等研究所紀要.
- hdl:10072/26121.
- S2CID 154380257.
- ^ Cheng, Chi-Yu (1949). "The Chinese Theory of Criminal Law". J. Crim. L. & Criminology. 39: 464–65. Archived from the original on 2017-03-04. Retrieved 2017-03-03.
- ^ Børge Bakken, "The Norms of Death: On Attitudes to Capital Punishment in China" in Capital Punishment: A Hazard to a Sustainable Criminal Justice System? (ed. Lill Scherdin: Ashgate, 2013), p. 199.
- ^ Peimin Ni, Understanding the Analects of Confucius: A New Translation of Lunyu with Annotations (SUNY Press, 2017) pp. 293–94.
- ^ a b Hong Lu & Terance D. Miethe, China's Death Penalty: History, Law and Contemporary Practices (Routledge: 2007), pp. 32–33.
- ^ Lu & Miethe, China's Death Penalty, pp. 31–32.
- ^ Lu & Miethe, China's Death Penalty, p. 32.
- ^ Cheng, Chi-Yu (1949). "The Chinese Theory of Criminal Law". J. Crim. L. & Criminology. 39. Archived from the original on 2017-03-04. Retrieved 2017-03-03.
- ^ "Executions Around the World". Death Penalty Information Center. Retrieved 2010-05-03.
- ^ "Overview: We know that, together, we can end the death penalty everywhere". Amnesty International. Archived from the original on 2016-08-22. Retrieved 2020-05-03.
- ISBN 9780231170079.
- ^ Maureen Fan; Ariana Eunjung Cha (2008-12-24). "China's Capital Cases Still Secret, Arbitrary". Washington Post. Archived from the original on 2011-01-25. Retrieved 2019-01-15.
China is estimated to have carried out 30 times the number of executions the United States did
- ^ "INFOGRAPHIC: Capital punishment in China". South China Morning Post. 2014-11-04. Archived from the original on 2017-07-05. Retrieved 2020-05-03.
- ^ zh:中华人民共和国死刑犯列表[circular reference]
- ^ Dui Hua Foundation. "Criminal Justice: Death Penalty Reform". Dui Hua Foundation. Archived from the original on 2014-09-15. Retrieved 2015-03-02.
- ^ a b Fan, Maureen; Cha, Ariana Eunjung (2008-12-24). "China's Capital Cases Still Secret, Arbitrary". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on 2011-01-25. Retrieved 2010-08-16.
- ^ "China Executes Ex-Food and Drug Chief". NPR. 2007-07-10. Archived from the original on 2015-05-05. Retrieved 2010-08-16.
- ^ "China population". Archived from the original on 2011-07-05. Retrieved 2011-05-25.
- ^ "Abolish the death penalty". Amnesty International. Archived from the original on 2010-08-30. Retrieved 2010-08-16.
- ^ "Billionaire executed for contract murder". Xinhua. 2006-03-18. Archived from the original on 2015-10-15. Retrieved 2015-02-12.
- ^ Blanchard, Ben (2015-02-09). "Chinese billionaire mining tycoon Liu Han is executed over his links to a 'mafia-style' gang". The Sydney Morning Herald. Archived from the original on 2019-07-25. Retrieved 2019-07-25.
- ^ Gan, Nectar (2024-02-01). "China executes couple for murder of toddlers that shocked the nation". CNN. Retrieved 2024-02-04.
- ^ hdl:10072/26121.
- ^ a b c d e Dui Hua Foundation. "Deciding Death: How Chinese Judges Review Capital Punishment Cases". Dui Hua Human Rights Journal. Dui Hua Foundation. Archived from the original on 2015-03-19. Retrieved 2015-03-02.
- ^ Duihua. "China's Supreme Court Overturns Death Sentence of Domestic Violence Survivor". Duihua.org. Dui Hua Foundation. Archived from the original on 2015-04-14. Retrieved 2015-04-13.
- ^ S2CID 154380257.
- ^ "Selected Legal Provisions of the People's Republic of China Affecting Criminal Justice". Congressional-Executive Commission on China. 1997-03-14. Archived from the original on 2010-08-03. Retrieved 2010-08-16.
- ^ "Gang leader executed after retrial". China Daily. 2003-12-23. Archived from the original on 2011-01-01. Retrieved 2010-08-16.
- .
- ^ "Threats". Panda Central. World Wide Fund for Nature. Archived from the original on 2010-05-29. Retrieved 2010-08-16.
- ^ "Capital crimes removed". Archived from the original on 2011-05-04. Retrieved 2011-08-22.
- ^ "Criminal justice system improved for human rights|Politics|chinadaily.com.cn". europe.chinadaily.com.cn. Archived from the original on 2013-08-22. Retrieved 2011-12-05.
- ^ a b Congressional-Executive Commission on China, Chinese Government Considers Reducing Number of Crimes Punishable by Death Archived 6 April 2012 at the Wayback Machine, 23 February 2011.
- ^ a b International Business Times, 'China suspends executions for two years' Archived 15 July 2012 at archive.today, 25 May 2011.
- ^ Chinanews.com. "刑法修正案(九)草案拟取消9个死刑罪名". chinanews.com. chinanews. Archived from the original on 2015-03-20. Retrieved 2015-04-14.
- ^ "China: Death Penalty Crimes to Be Further Reduced". Library of Congress. 2015-09-22. Archived from the original on 2017-07-11. Retrieved 2019-06-23.
- ^ Van Sant, Shannon. "China Reduces Number of Crimes Punishable by Death". Voice of America. Archived from the original on 2019-06-23. Retrieved 2019-06-23.
- ^ Daum, Jeremy (2015-09-28). "It's a crime, I tell ya: Major Changes in China's Criminal Law Amendment 9". China Law Translate. Archived from the original on 2019-06-23. Retrieved 2019-06-23.
- ^ Plaçais, Aurélie (2015-10-06). "China reduces the number of crimes punishable by death to 46, but keep drug trafficking in the list". World Coalition against the Death Penalty. Archived from the original on 2019-06-23. Retrieved 2019-06-23.
- ^ "Criminal Procedure Law of the People's Republic of China – 1996". Lehman, Lee & Xu. 1996-03-17.
- ^ Congressional-Executive Commission on China, 2010 Annual Report Archived 5 December 2010 at the Wayback Machine, 10 October 2010, p. 98.
- ^ a b Dui Hua Foundation, 'Reducing Death Penalty Crimes in China More Symbol Than Substance' Archived 17 October 2015 at the Wayback Machine, Dialogue, Issue 40, Fall 2010.
- . Retrieved 2023-01-23.
- ^ Smith, Craig S. (2001-12-28). "In Shift, Chinese Carry Out Executions by Lethal Injection". The New York Times. Retrieved 2020-10-19.
- . Retrieved 2023-01-23.
- ^ news.xinhuanet.com Capital crimes dropped Archived 28 February 2011 at the Wayback Machine- Retrieved 6 April 2012
- ^ a b Hood, Roger; Hoyle, Carolyn (2015). "The Death Penalty in China – The Road to Reform". Oxford University Law Faculty. Archived from the original on 2016-06-09.
- qq.com (in Chinese). 青年周末. 2008-04-03. Archivedfrom the original on 2013-10-01. Retrieved 2012-06-07.
- ^ ISSN 2070-3449.
- ^ Lim, Zi Heng (2013-05-09). "Why China Executes So Many People". The Atlantic. Archived from the original on 2017-03-04.
- ^ Zhang, Lijia (2014-12-29). "China's Death-Penalty Debate". the New York Times. Retrieved 2017-04-11.
- ^ Griffiths, James (2016-04-07). "China is the world's top executioner, but it doesn't want you to know that". CNN. Archived from the original on 2017-03-04.
- ^ Amnesty International, Death Sentences and Executions 2010 Archived 22 November 2018 at the Wayback Machine, 28 March 2011, pp 19 -20.
- ^ Miao, Michelle. "International Anti-Death Penalty Advocacy and China's Recent Capital Punishment Reform". International Affairs Forum. Archived from the original on 2017-03-04.
- ^ a b David Fickling, China 'using prisoner organs for transplants' Archived 27 February 2019 at the Wayback Machine, The Guardian, 19 April 2006.
- ^ Ian Cobain, 'The beauty products from the skin of executed Chinese prisoners' Archived 18 September 2019 at the Wayback Machine, The Guardian, 12 September 2005.
- ^ Peter Foster, 'China admits organs removed from prisoners for transplants' Archived 27 February 2019 at the Wayback Machine, The Telegraph, 26 August 2009.
- ^ a b c "RRT Research Response (CHN31249)" (PDF). Refugee Review Tribunal. 2007-01-17. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2020-11-12. Retrieved 2021-01-15.
External links
- The Chinese Human Rights Web
- China: Death Penalty Worldwide Archived 27 November 2019 at the Wayback Machine Academic research database on the laws, practice, and statistics of capital punishment for every death penalty country in the world.